^I^ff 


UCSB  LIBRARY 


COLOMBIA 


THE   tjUlNDlO. 


Frontispiece, 


COLOMBIA 


PHANOR   JAMES    EDER 


WITH    40    ILLUSTRATlOISfS    AND    2    MAPS 


NEW   YORK  :    CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS 
LONDON:    T.    FISHER   UNWIN 


Firsi  Published  in  igij 


{All  rights  reserved) 


DEDICATED 

TO 

MY     FATHER 

A   PIONEER   OF   PROGRESS 

IN   COLOMBIA 


PREFACE 

Though,  by  virtue  of  the  possession  of  literary  abili- 
ties to  which  I  can  lay  no  claim,  or  by  longer 
residence  in  that  hospitable  land,  there  are  others 
better  fitted  to  write  on  Colombia,  yet  I  do  not 
believe  there  is  any  foreigner  who  has  had  the  oppor- 
tunities that  have  been  presented  to  me  in  the  course 
of  my  practice  for  coming  into  such  close  touch 
with  so  many  different  spheres  of  activity  in  widely 
scattered  parts  of  the  country.  United  by  ties  of 
birth,  family,  friendships,  and  business  relations  to 
Colombia,  and  consequently  appreciating,  I  hope,  the 
native  point  of  view,  and  at  the  same  time  being 
aware  of  the  attitude  of  the  Northerner,  I  felt  that 
in  undertaking  this  book  for  the  South  American 
Series  I  could  render  a  double  service — a  service 
to  the  Colombians  in  sympathetically  interpreting 
their  country  to  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  a  service 
to  the  English  and  American  business  man,  interested 
actually  or  potentially  in  Colombia — in  setting  before 
him  a  true  picture  of  what  he  wants  to  know. 

If  I  have  succeeded  in  keeping  up  to  the  high 
standard  set  by  the  authors  of  the  other  volumes  in 
the  South  American  Series  and  in  presenting  a  true, 
fair,  and  sympathetic  general  picture  of  present- 
day  commercial  and  industrial  conditions  in 
Colombia,  I  shall  deem  myself  well  rewarded  for 
the  time  snatched  from  my  professional  and  leisure 
hours.  For  there  is  so  much  extant  in  print  that  is 
utterly  misleading,  so  much  that  is  utterly  untruthful, 


viii  PREFACE 

and  so  little  that  strikes  the  just  medium  between 
glowing  panegyrics  that  read  like  a  promoter's  pros- 
pectus on  the  one  hand,  and  ignorant,  unsympathetic 
abuse  and  the  worthless  impressionism  of  shallow 
journalists  on  the  other.  Colombia  is  neither  a  land 
where  "  gold  grows  on  coffee -trees,"  where  "  children 
play  with  nuggets  picked  up  on  the  streets,"  where 
"  there  are  ready-made  fortunes  to  be  picked  up  for 
the  asking  "  nor  a  country  "  reeking  with  disease  " 
and  "  swarming  with  revolutionary  bandits,  swash- 
buckling generals,  and  reckless  demagogues,"  as 
stock  salesmen  or  embittered  adventurers  would  have 
us  believe. 

The  foreigners  best  qualified  to  speak  usually 
remain  silent.  Mindful  of  the  fact  that  it  is  in 
general  presumptuous  for  a  man  to  speak  of  a  coun- 
try not  his  own,  and  especially  aware  of  the  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  Latin  American  to  criticism,  realizing 
how  irrevocable  is  the  printed  word,  how  deleterious 
to  their  own  personal  interests  frank  speech  may 
be,  how  readily  their  motives  may  be  questioned 
and  their  views  misunderstood,  they  often  lack  the 
courage  to  step  forward,  the  courage  to  make  the 
mistakes  of  fact  and  of  judgment  that  inevitably 
creep  into  any  book,  and  the  courage  to  expose 
themselves  to  attack  and  hostile  criticism.  And  yet 
it  is  a  burning  necessity  that  peoples  learn  to  know 
one  other,  and  Colombia,  perhaps  above  all  Latin 
countries,  has  suffered  from  being  misunderstood. 

Colombia  is  not  an  opera  bouffe  country,  nor  a 
country  all  of  jungles,  fevers,  wild  beasts,  and  savage 
Indians,  where  one  is  exposed  to  death  instanter.  No, 
it  is  rather  an  ordinary  flesh-and-blood  country  of 
happy  and  unhappy  homes  and  families  and  of  daily 
business  routine.  Here  are  people  who  work  their 
plantations,  who  mine  the  bowels  of  the  earth  and  wash 
the  river  sands,  who  hew  down  forests,  who  have  their 
shops,  who  paint  pictures,   sing  songs,  make  books. 


PREFACE  ix 

publish  newspapers,  who  are  earnestly  engaged  in 
attempting  to  solve  their  political,  economical, 
ecclesiastical,  and  other  national  problems,  even  as 
are  the  British,  or  the  Americans,  or  the  Canadians, 
or  the  French,  or  the  Germans. 

They  may  go  to  church  more  or  to  school  less 
than  other  peoples,  their  population  may  be  scanty, 
their  science  of  government  not  perfected,  their  lower 
classes  uneducated,  but  they  are  worthy  of  serious 
attention.  They  are  not  a  nation  of  slaves.  Here 
are  free  men  striving  along  various  lines  for 
national  improvement.  There  are  earnest  men, 
defenders  of  the  old  moralities  and  of  the  old  beliefs, 
there  are  Conservatives,  there  are  Radicals  engrossed 
with  the  new  ideas  and  the  new  hopes.  Can  it  be 
fairly  doubted  that  these  descendants  of  that  virile 
race  of  Spaniards  who  gave  to  humanity  a  New 
vWorld,  of  those  enlightened  heroes  of  the  Independ- 
ence who,  imbued  with  ideals  of  liberty  and  human 
rights,  fought  for  their  nation's  sovereignty,  will  not 
work  out  their  own  salvation,  will  not  finally  succeed 
in  swinging  their  nation  fully  into  line  in  the  grand 
march  of  the  world? 

But  with  such  matters  I  have  not  concerned  myself 
in  this  book.  To  present  the  national  soul,  the  inmost 
spirit,  of  even  a  small  population  like  Colombia's 
is  a  task  requiring  the  perseverant  labour,  keen  in- 
sight, and  breadth  of  view  of  a  gifted  social  philoso- 
pher. Neither  have  I  attempted,  discretion  being 
the  better  part  of  bookmaking,  to  intrude  upon  the 
paths  of  science.  Notwithstanding  Colombia  presents, 
scientific  friends  tell  me,  a  splendid  and  almost  virgin 
field  for  original  exploration  and  investigation  in 
natural  history  and  anthropology,  the  scientist  will 
find  herein  little  if  anything  of  interest,  though  I 
trust  that  the  bibliographical  material  at  least  may 
prove  of  value  to  research  workers.  I  have  confined 
myself   to   the   point   of   view  of   the  mere   business 

lA 


X  PREFACE 

man  ;  it  is  Colombia's  present  industrial  and  financial 
condition  that  I  have  primarily  attempted  to  portray, 
with  only  such  bare  historical,  political,  and  socio- 
logical material  as  was  necessary  to  frame  the  picture. 

I  have  tried  to  lay  the  facts  fairly  and  candidly 
before  the  reader.  In  so  doing,  though  I  have  as 
far  as  possible  sunk  my  own  personal  views,  I  have 
been  under  the  necessity  of  indulging  at  times  in 
stricture  of  some  things  Colombian.  In  fact,  I  fear 
that,  realizing  my  sympathy  and  friendly  feeling  for 
Colombia  might  tend  to  make  me  unduly  indulgent, 
I  may  have  occasionally  gone  too  far  towards  the 
other  extreme  and  unconsciously  passed  from  criti- 
cism to  censure.  But  I  feel  confident  that  my 
Colombian  friends,  knowing  well  my  love  for  them 
and  their  country,  will  pardon  any  errors  of  judgment 
on  my  part  and  will  appreciate  that  any  criticisms 
made  have  been  intended  in  the  best  of  faith  to  be 
constructive  and  helpful.  If  I  had  attempted,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  veil  what  seemed  to  me  to  be  defects, 
such  lack  of  sincerity  would  have  been  at  once 
evident,  and  all  hope  that  this  book,  by  a  sympathetic 
presentation  to  foreign  readers,  might  redound  to 
Colombia's  good  would  be  vain. 

I  think  I  recognize  to  the  full  the  difficulty  of 
the  national  problems  the  Colombian  Government 
and  the  enlightened  classes  in  Colombia  have  to 
contend  with.  Above  all,  perhaps,  is  the  problem 
of  carrying  on  the  necessary  governmental  functions, 
to  the  extent  nowadays  required  for  speedy  progress, 
with  insufficient  sources  of  revenue,  and  the  difficulty 
of  levying  new  forms  of  taxes  which  the  people  are 
not  accustomed  to. 

Railroads  and  roads  could  be  so  easily  built,  new 
schools  opened,  agriculture  officially  encouraged,  and 
its  chief  enemies,  like  the  prevalent  locust,  checked, 
rich  regions  made  sanitary  and  habitable,  if  there 
were  only  lots  of  money   in   hand   to   do  the   work 


PREFACE  xi 

with  !  And  if  foreign  capital  be  sought,  the  grave 
problem  arises  how  to  obtain  it  without  subjecting 
the  country  to  the  risk  of  an  intolerable  foreign 
domination.  And  social  questions  are  no  less  hard  : 
how  to  arouse  the  masses  from  the  lethargy  of 
ignorance  and  illiteracy  ;  how  to  free  the  Indians 
from  the  sullen  fear,  inherited  from  the  Spanish  days, 
of  the  priests  and  the  governing  classes  ;  how  to 
civilize  the  savages  within  the  country's  borders. 
These  and  other  serious  problems,  the  delicate  one, 
for  instance,  of  how  to  maintain,  in  a  strongly 
Catholic  country,  a  just  balance  of  power  and  influ- 
ence between  the  ecclesiastical  and  the  political 
authorities,  between  priests  and  citizens — all  these 
problems  call  for  constructive  statesmanship  of  the 
highest  order  and  for  a  rare  spirit  of  co-operation. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  the  prevalent  note  of  pessimism 
in  the  modern  world  finds  strong  echoes  even  in 
remote  Colombia. 

Few  of  our  books  evince  even  an  inkling  of 
appreciation  of  these  besetting  problems.  The 
dearth  of  reliable  books  in  English  on  the  minor 
Spanish  American  countries  is  especially  deplorable 
now  that  South  America  is  on  the  eve  of  a  great 
development.  Colombia,  as  I  have  already  indi- 
cated, has  suffered  much  in  this  regard.  Immedi- 
ately after  the  Independence  a  number  of  interesting 
works  were  printed  ;  but  interest  in  the  country  seems 
early  to  have  lagged,  and  only  at  rare  intervals  were 
there  any  publications  of  merit  in  our  language  to 
record  her  progress  through  the  course  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  In  this  connection,  it  may  not  be 
inopportune  to  sound  a  note  of  warning,  at  least 
touching  Colombia,  against  the  majority  of  general 
books  on  South  America.  It  does  not  seem  to  matter 
much  whether  the  author's  general  attitude  be  one 
ojf  hostility  to  the  Latin  countries,  as  in  Stephen 
Bonsall's  The  American  Mediterranean,  or  of  friend- 


xii  PREFACE 

ship,  as  in  H,  W.  Van  Dyke's  Through  South 
America,  to  instance  only  the  two  latest  publications 
that  have  come  to  my  notice — in  either  case  absurd 
errors  of  fact  and  historical  mis-statements  are  apt 
to  abound.  Another  recent  book  of  a  much  more 
serious  stamp,  R.  E.  Speer's  South  American 
Problems,  also  does  Colombia  scant  justice,  indulges 
in  equally  unjustified  slurs  as  does  Bonsall's,  and  pro- 
duces a  false  general  impression  :  it  contains,  how- 
ever, much  truth  and  food  for  thought,  and  should 
be  read  by  any  one  desiring  to  obtain  an  idea  of 
South  American  education  and  religion  as  viewed 
from  the  Protestant  Mission  standpoint  by  a  man  of 
experience,  evidently  sincere,  though  naturally  of  a 
strong  anti-Catholic  bias.  The  matters  that  he  treats 
of — religious  questions — I  have  neither  felt  myself 
competent  to  discuss  nor  deemed  within  the  legiti- 
mate scope  of  this  book  ;  but  it  does  seem  to  me  that, 
even  granting  the  truth  of  his  premises,  the  conclusion 
he  evidently  draws,  namely,  that  the  solution  in  large 
part  of  these  particular  South  American  problems 
is  an  extended  Protestant  missionary  movement,  is 
without  logical  foundation,  and  equally  without 
foundation  in  the  results,  utterly  negligible  either 
for  good  or  ill,  that  have  been  heretofore  obtained 
by  the  few  Protestant  missions  that  have  been  in 
Colombia.  A  broader,  more  modern,  and  more  pro- 
gressive; outlook  than  the  average  village  cura 
possesses  is  indeed  needed,  but  it  is  not  to  be  found 
in  the  narrow,  shallow,  illiberal  mentalities  that  fill 
the  ranks  of  the  missionaries.  Probably  a  little 
less  of  both  priest  and  missionary,  and  a  little  more 
of  the  engineer,  the  doctor,  the  economist,  and  the 
scientist  would  enable  us  more  surely  to  make  a 
favourable    prognosis. 

I  know  of  only  two  general  books  on  Colombia 
published  within  recent  years  in  the  English  tongue — 
Mr.    Petre's   The   Republic  of  Colombia,  which  con- 


PREFACE  xiii 

tains  much  that  is  of  value,  and  Following  the 
Conquistadores:  Up  the  Orinoco  and  Down  the 
Magdalena,  by  the  CathoUc  scholar  who  writes  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Dr.  H.  J.  Mozans  ;  the  excep- 
tional opportunities  for  observation  he  seems  to  have 
had,  his  understanding  of  the  Latin  American,  his 
extensive  reading,  intimate  knowledge  of  history,  and 
interest  in  the  natural  sciences,  and  the  felicity  of 
his  style  have  produced  a  book  of  travel  of  unique 
charm.  The  ground  covered  by  these  two  books, 
which  are  readily  accessible,  I  have  scarcely 
attempted  to  retrace,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  I  have 
found  two  continental  books  of  considerable  assist- 
ance in  the  preparation  of  this  volume — La  Republique 
de  Colombie,  by  the  Colombian  Consul  at  Brussels, 
Mr.  Henri  Jalhay,  and  Professor  Fritz  Kegel's 
Kolunibien. 

I  am  also  indebted  for  occasional  assistance  and 
statistics  to  a  host  of  friends  and  acquaintances, 
public  and  company  officials,  merchants,  engineers, 
and  travellers  too  numerous  to  mention.  I  must 
especially  express  my  thanks  to  the  members  of  my 
immediate  family,  and  to  my  cousin.  Dr.  M.  D.  Eder  ; 
to  Mr.  Francisco  Escobar,  the  Consul-General  of 
Colombia  in  this  city,  who  has  freely  thrown  open 
to  me  the  resources  of  his  office,  and  who  collaborated 
with  me  in  sending  out  a  questionnaire  to  the  719 
alcaldes,  or  mayors,  in  Colombia,  to  which  we 
received  many  interesting  replies  supplementing  the 
special  reports  which  a  number  of  the  Departmental 
Governors  were  kind  enough  to  send  me  ;  and  finally 
to  Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman,  of  the  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  who  has  kept  me  posted  as  to  the 
explorations  of  himself  and  his  staff  in  Colorhbia, 
and  who  generously  placed  at  my  disposal  his  ex- 
cellent photographs.  I  am  also  indebted  to  Mr. 
Chapman  for  permission  to  reproduce  the  map  of 
iWestern  Colombia,  facing  page  208.     This  will  serve 


xiv  PREFACE 

in  a  measure  to  correct  the  errors  of  the  general 
map.  Unfortunately,  there  is  no  thoroughly  reliable 
map  of  the  whole  country  to  be  had  ;  the  jone 
here  reproduced  is  about  as  good  as  any  ;  one  or 
two,  in  some  respects  better,  have  been  published  in 
Colombia,  but  they  were  either  unsuitable  or  un- 
available for  the  present  publication. 

PHANOR  J.  EDER 

New  York, 
March  30,  1913. 


CONTE^^TS 

PAGE 

PREFACE       .  .  .  .  .  .  .        vii 

CHAPTER    I 

INTRODUCTION — GEOGRAPHICAL   OUTLINE.  .  .  I 

Colombia  a  land  of  contrasts — Situation — History  of 
geographical  exploration — Cieza  de  Leon — Juan  and 
Ulloa — Mutis  and  Caldas — Humboldt — Modern  geo- 
graphers— The  Andes — The  Sierra  Nevada — The 
Baudo  range — The  Western  Cordillera — The  Central 
Cordillera — The  selvas  and  llanos — The  Eastern 
Cordillera — Vital  influence  of  the  mountains. 

CHAPTER    II 

CONQUEST   AND   COLONIAL   DAYS      .  .  .  '13 

Ojeda's  discoveries  and  Darien  colonies — Balboa's 
discovery  of  the  Pacific — Permanent  colonies  at  Santa 
Marta  and  Cartagena — Quesada's  conquest  of  New 
Granada — German  expeditions — Other  conquistadores 
— The  Spanish  colonial  system — Survival  of  the  Indian 
race — Negro  slavery — The  New  Granada  colony — 
Montano — Venero — Early  educational  institutions — 
President  Borja — Sir  Francis  Drake — Pirates  and 
buccaneers — The  Inquisition — New  Granada  a  vice- 
royalty — Vernon's  defeat  at  Cartagena — Paterson  and 
the  Scots  Darien  colony — Expulsion  of  the  Jesuits 
— Enlightened  policies  under  the  Bourbons. 

CHAPTER    III 

MODERN    HISTORY    .  .  .  .  .  '31 

Submission  to  Spanish  authority — Lope  de  Aguirre's 
outbreak — Uprising    of    the     "  Comuneros  " — Narino 


xvi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

and  the  Rights  of  Man — Miranda's  expeditions — Procla- 
mations of  Independence — La  Patria  Boba — Morillo's 
pacification— Triumph  of  the  patriots  under  Bolivar — 
Santander  —  Opposing  theories  of  Government  — 
Foreign  recognition — Secession  of  Venezuela  and 
Ecuador — Conservative  domination — Mosquera  and 
the  Liberal  triumph — The  Conservatives  regain  power 
— Revolution  of  1899 — General  Reyes — Dr.  Restrepo 
President — Revolutionism  :  its  causes  and  cure. 


CHAPTER    IV 

DIPLOMATIC   RELATIONS       .  .  .  .  -47 

The  Panama  Congress — South  America  and  the 
United  States — Fear  of  "Yankee"  aggressions — The 
revolt  of  Panama  and  the  Panama  question — Colombia's 
boundary  conflicts — Navigation  dispute  with  Vene- 
zuela— Hostility  to  Peru — Friendliness  to  Chile, 
Germany,  and  Japan — International  claims — Diplo- 
matic and  Consular  service. 


CHAPTER  V 

GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW       .  .  .  .  -57 

Early  Constitutions — Present  Constitution — The  Exe- 
cutive Power  —  Local  Governments  —  Alcaldes  — 
Statistics  of  departments — Local  revenues — Economic 
dependence  on  National  Government — The  President 
and  Congress — National  Assemblies — The  Judiciary — 
Legal  procedure — Ability  of  Colombian  lawyers — 
Legal  literature — Codes — Necessity  of  penal  reform. 

CHAPTER   VI 

FINANCES   AND    BANKING      .  .  .  .  -72 

Humour  of  the  paper  money — History  of  paper 
currency — First  steps  towards  reform — Junta  de 
Amortizacion  —  The  Banco  Central  —  Comparative 
stability  of  exchange — Improvement  of  national 
finances — Budget— National  Debt — Present  status  of 
banks — Banking  statistics — Opportunities  for  foreign 
bankers. 


CONTENTS  xvii 


CHAPTER   VII 

PAGE 

TRAVEL  AND   TRANSPORTATION         .  .  .  .88 

Backwardness  of  travel — Compensating  delights — 
Steamship  connections — Barranquilla  Railway — Carta- 
gena Railway — Santa  Marta  line — Navigation  on  the 
Magdalena  River — Advisable  travelling  equipment — 
Antioquia  Railway — Amaga  Railway — La-Dorada  Rail- 
way— Routes  to  the  capital — The  Girardot  line — The 
Bogota  lines — Cart  and  mule  roads — Puerto  Wilches 
project — Cucuta  and  its  outlet  by  Venezuela — Travel 
on  a  champan — Roads  to  the  South — The  Quindio 
road — Rough  travel — Wayside  inns — Navigation  on 
the  upper  Cauca — The  Pacific  Railway — Ports  of 
Buenaventura  and  Tumaco. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

ANOTHER   WORD   ON    RAILROADS     .  .  .  .Ill 

Isolation  of  Colombia's  present  railways — Past 
mistakes — The  Magdalena  not  a  great  shipping 
channel — Lack  of  feeder  roads — Railroad  statistics — 
Government  aid  essential — Necessity  of  foreign  capital 
— Probable  lines  of  future  rail  development — Roads 
from  the  Venezuelan  frontier — Prolongation  of  the 
Cauca  line — Pan-American  Railway  investigations — 
Other  proposed  routes  —  Subsidies  —  Government 
ownership. 

CHAPTER    IX 

COMMERCE.  ......       123 

Statistics  of  Exports  and  Imports— Wholesale  and 
retail  trade — Control  of  business  by  foreign  commission 
merchants — How  the  coffee  trade  is  financed — Other 
exports — Trade  with  the  respective  countries — 
Illiberal  treatment  of  agents — Chief  requisites  ifor 
expansion  of  foreign  business — Obstacles  to  trade — 
Customs  tariff — Internal  trade — Markets,  fairs,  and 
primitive  business  methods. 


xviii  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    X 

PAGE 

AGRICULTURE  .  .  .  .  .  .138 

Climatic  zones — Seasons — Coast  zones — Relative  im- 
portance of  the  divers  agricultural  pursuits — Cattle 
— Dairying — Hides — Horses  and  mules — Plantains — 
Corn  —  Beans  — Sugar  —  Panela  —  Coffee  —  Cacao  — 
Wheat — Bananas — Cotton — Potatoes,  yuccas  and  arra- 
cachas — Panama  hats — Fibres — Productions  of  the 
different  departments — General  outlook. 


CHAPTER   XI 

MINES   AND    FORESTS  .....      158 

Present  day  activity — Salt — Emerald  mines — The 
famous  Muzo  mines — Coal  deposits — Iron,  copper,  etc. 
— Platinum — Gold  and  silver — Statistics  of  production 
— Principal  regions — Placer  and  quartz  mines  of 
Autioquia — Marmato  and  Supia — Central  and  Eastern 
Cordilleras — The  Pacific  littoral — The  Choco — Liber- 
ality of  the  Mining  Laws — Public  lands — Utilization 
of  the  forests — Ivory  nuts — Immigration. 

CHAPTER   XII 

THE    COAST    REGIONS  .  .  .  .  .       181 

Goajira  Peninsula — Department  of  Magdalena — Santa 
Marta  and  the  banana  trade — The  Sierra  Nevada — 
The  Ahruaco  Indians — The  Valle  Dupar  and 
Motilones  —  Department  Atlantico  —  Barranquilla  — 
Cartagena — Department  of  Bohvar — Sugar  production 
— The  Sinu  region — San  Andres  and  Providence 
Islands — Gulf  of  Uraba — The  Choco-Pacific  coast — 
Buenaventura — Tumaco — The  Patia — Coast  negroes 
— Mulattoes. 

CHAPTER   XIII 

THE    ANDEAN     REGIONS    (CENTRAL     AND     WESTERN    COR- 
DILLERAS) .....       199 

Complex  racial  diversities — The  Antioqueno — Depart- 
ment of  Antioquia — Medellin — Department  of  Caldas 


CONTENTS  xix 

PAGE 

— ^The  city  of  Manizales — Department  of  El  Valle — 
The  rich  Cauca  Valley — Departments  of  Cauca,  Narino 
and  Huila — Archaeological  remains  at  San  Agustin — 
Department  of  Tolima. 


CHAPTER    XIV 
THE   ANDEAN    REGIONS   (THE    EASTERN   CORDILLERA)  .      212 

North  Santander  and  its  capital,  Cucuta — Department 
of  Santander — Bucaramanga — Character  of  the  San- 
tanderefios — Department  of  Boyaca — Department  of 
Cundinamarca — The  Sabana  of  Bogota — The  National 
Capital — Industries — Social  and  intellectual  life — 
Character  of  the  Indian  population — Quotation  from 
Samper — Tequendama  Falls — Excursions— Legend  of 
El  Dorado. 

CHAPTER   XV 

THE  LLANOS  AND  THE  SELVAS    ....   228 

Vast  area  of  unoccupied  lands — Scanty  geographical 
knowledge — Casanare — Favourable  prospects  for  stock- 
grazing — Adverse  climatic  conditions — Outlook  for 
agriculture — The  llanos  not  fertile — Striking  view  of 
the  llanos — Character  of  the  llanero — The  Orinoco 
tributaries — The  Amazon  tributaries — Rubber  gather- 
ing— Black  waters — Explorations  of  the  Putumayo  and 
Caqueta  by  Reyes  and  Crevaux — The  Putumayo 
atrocities — Possibility  of  development. 


CHAPTER   XVI 
EDUCATION  AND  THE   INTELLECTUAL   LIFE  .      248 

Slowness  of  educational  development.  Public  schools 
— Control  of  education  by  the  clergy — Statistics — 
Secondary  schools — Normal  schools — The  universities 
— Neglect  of  the  natural  sciences — Colombian  scien- 
tists of  eminence — Medical  schools — The  practice  of 
medicine — Journalism — Newspapers  and  reviews — 
Literature  during  colonial  times — Renaissance  at  the 
dawn  of  the  Revolution — Colombian  historians — The 


XX  CONTENTS 

scholar  in  politics — Caro — Camacho  Roldan — Small 
influence  of  the  drama — Fiction — "  Maria  " — Cult  of 
Poetry — Arboleda — Pombo — Facile  versifiers — Latent 
literary  genius — Social  service  that  can  be  rendered  by 
foreigners — Promise  of  rich  intellectual  future. 


APPENDIX    I  .....  .  271 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution,  1910, 

APPENDIX    II  .  .  .  .  .  .  282 

Aboriginal  Linguistic  Stocks  of  Colombia. 

SELECT  BIBLIOGRAPHY    ......  289 

INDEX     .......  302 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


THE  QUINDIO  .....        Frontispiece 

(Photograph  by  Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman,  of  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History) 

FACING  PAGE 

BRIDGE  OVER  THE  MAGDALENA  RIVER  BETWEEN  GIGANTE 

AND   CARNICERIAS  .  .  .  .  .6 

(Courtesy  of  Dr.  Roberto  Caycedo,  Governor  of  Huila) 

SANTA   MARTA  .  .  .  .  .  .         l6 

(Photograph  by  Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman) 

HOUSE   OF   THE    INQUISITION  .  .  .  .26 

(Courtesy  of  Mr.  Sebastian  Pickelman) 

CARTAGENA  .  .  .  .  .  •         38 

SIMON   BOLIVAR         .  .  .  .  .  .48 

PRESIDENT   RESTREPO   AND    HIS   CABINET,    I912  :  .         58 

(i)  Sr.  Dr.  Carlos  E.  Restrepo,  President ;  (2)  Sr.  Dr.  Carlos  Cuervo 
Marquez,  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  ;  (3)  Sr.  Dr.  Jose  Manuel 
Arango,  Minister  of  War ;  (4)  Sr.  Dr.  Francisco  Restrepo  Plata, 
Minister  of  Hacienda  ;  (5)  Sr.  Dr.  Pedro  M.  Carreiio,  Minister  of 
Government  ;  (6)  Sr.  Dr.  Jose  Ma.  Gonzalez  Valencia,  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs  ;  (7)  Sr.  Dr.  Simon  Araujo,  Minister  of  Public 
Works  ;  (8)  Sr.  Dr.  Carlos  N.  Resales,  Minister  of  the  Treasury. 

(Courtesy  of  Sun  Life  Assurance  Company,  of  Canada) 

ON    THE    LOWER    CAUCA    RIVER,    DEPARTMENT   OF  ANTIO- 

QUIA       .......         74 

(Courtesy  of  Messrs.  Breitung  &  Co.,  Ltd.) 
xxi 


xxii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING  PAGE 

BANCO    COMERCIAL,    BARRANQUILLA  .  .  .84 

BANCO    DE   COLOMBIA,    BOGOTA         .  .  .  .84 

TRANSPORTING    HEAVY    MACHINERY   ACROSS   THE   ANDES    .         88 

STREET   IN   BARRANQUILLA  .  .  .  .96 

(Courtesy  of  Mr.  Harry  I.  Skilton) 

THE    PORT   OF   BARRANQUILLA  .  .  .  .96 

(Courtesy  of  Mr.  Harry  I.  Skilton) 

MAGDALENA    RIVER   STEAMERS  .  .  .  .96 

(Courtesy  of  Mr.  Harry  I.  Skilton) 

QUINDl'o   ROAD  SCENE.      IBAGUE   IN  THE   DISTANCE  .      106 

(Photograph  by  Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman) 

QUINDIO    ROAD   SCENE,    SALENTO    .  .  .  .       I06 

(Photograph  by  Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman) 

ON   THE    CAUCA   RAILROAD.  .  .  .  .       I18 

PALMS     FROM     WHICH     THE    SUAZA    (PANAMA)     HATS    ARE 

MADE    .......      124 

(Courtesy  of  Dr.  Roberto  Caycedo,  Governor  of  Huila) 

MARKET   AT    BARRANQUILLA  ....       136 

(Photograph  by  Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman) 

MARKET   AT   CARTAGO  .....       136 

(Photograph  by  Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman) 

LA    MANUELITA    SUGAR    FACTORY      ....       I46 

CACAO   AND    MADRE   DE   CACAO   TREES  .  .  .      152 

(Photograph  by  Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman) 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xxiii 

FACING  PAGE 

LA   CASCADA   QUARTZ   MINE,    MANIZALES      .  .  .      l66 

(Courtesy  of  Dr.  Ramon  Jaramillo,  R.  Governor  of  Caldas) 

NATIVE    PLACER    MIXERS,   SAN    NICOLAS        .  .  .      l66 

(Courtesy  of  Messrs.  Breitung  &  Co.,  Ltd.) 

drillers'   CAMP   ON   THE   TARAZA    PLACER,   ANTIOQUIA      .      174 

(Courtesy  of  Messrs.  Breitung  &  Co.,  Ltd.) 

NATIVE   WOODSMEN   AT   WORK  .  .  .  .      178 

(Photograph  by  Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman) 

CUTTING   SUGAR-CANE  .....       I90 

CHOCO    INDIAN  ......       I94 

(Photograph  by  Mr.  L.  E.  Miller,  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History) 

CHOCO    NEGRO  ......      I94 

(Photograph  by  Mr.  L.  E.  Miller) 

A   STREET   IN    MEDELLIN      .....      202 

COUNTRY    HOUSE   BALCONY   (lA    MANUELITA),    CAUCA  .      204 

VALLEY   AND   VIEW    FROM    IT  ....      204 

(Photographs  by  Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman) 

COFFEE   AND    RUBBER    PLANTATION    IN    THE    HILLS  .      214 

(Courtesy  of  Messrs.  Alejandro  Angel  &  Co.) 

THE    CAPITOL,    BOGOTA  .....      220 

BUILDING   A    RANCH    HOUSE,   GUENGUE       .  .  .      23O 

(Photograph  by  Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman) 

VAQUERO,   OR   COWBOY         .....      236 


xxiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACIMG  PAGE 

SO-CALLED   STALAGMITES,    ANGOSTURA,    CARNICERIAS  .      244 

(Courtesy  of  Dr.  Roberto  Caycedo,  Governor  of  Huila) 

RURAL   SCHOOL  ......      250 

A    FAVOURITE   PASTIME  .  .  .  .  .      250 

CATHEDRAL   AT   GARZON,    DEPARTMENT   OF    HUILA  .      268 

(Courtesy  of  Dr.  Roberto  Caycedo) 

MAPS 

CENTRAL  WESTERN    COLOMBIA  ....      2o8 

(Drawn  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  F.  M.  Chapman,  of  the  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  chiefly  from  maps  of  Robert  Blake  White) 

GENERAL   MAP   OF   COLOMBIA  .  .  .         end  0/ volume. 

(Stanford's  Geographical  Establishment) 


COLOMBIA 

CHAPTER    I 

INTRODUCTION— GEOGRAPHICAL  OUTLINE 

At  the  very  gates  of  the  Panama  Canal — lost  to  her 
by  her  own  short-sightedness  and  the  prompt  but 
high-handed  energy  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  Colonel  Roosevelt — lies  a  country  of  lofty 
mountains  and  snow-capped  summits,  of  fertile,  tem- 
perate valleys  and  plateaux,  of  riotously  tropical 
coasts  and  lowlands,  of  extensive  natural  pastures 
and  of  thousands  of  miles  of  virgin  forests  ;  a 
country  rich  with  promise  of  vast  mineral  wealth, 
whose  varied  climate  is  capable  of  nurturing  the 
vegetation  of  every  zone,  yet  which  lies  fallow  for 
lack  of  highways  and  railroads  ;  a  country  teeming 
with  interest  to  the  historian  and  the  archseologist, 
possessing  a  literature  and  culture  second  to  none  in 
the  New  World,  and  whose  capital  proudly  bears 
the  title  of  the  "  Athens  of  South  America,"  yet  where 
the  mass  of  the  people  are  illiterate  and  in  whose 
remote  forests  roam  savage  tribes  who  have  never 
looked  upon  the  face  of  the  white  man — in  short,  a 
country  of  boundless  possibilities  and  of  the  strangest 
contrasts. 

This  is  the  Republic  of  Colombia. 

A  century  ago,  when  she  cast  off  the  yoke  of 
Spain,  prophecy  was  made  of  the  great  achievements 

2  1 


2  COLOMBIA 

for  which  this  favoured  land  was  destined  :  a  thriv- 
ing industrial  development  would  provide  employ- 
ment for  settlers  from  the  outworn  civilizations  of 
Europe,  and  in  this  new  lap  of  liberty  humanity  was 
to  attain  a  new  and  higher  civilization.  Colombia 
was  then  the  foremost  nation  of  South  America  ;  she 
was  to  become  one  of  the  great  Powers  of  the  world. 
These  hopes  have  been  shattered  ;  neglected  by 
foreign  capital  and  by  foreign  emigrants  because  of 
political  instability,  she  has  seen  herself  out-distanced 
by  many  of  her  sisters,  her  growth  checked  by  want 
of  men  and  money,  and  her  territory  encroached  upon 
by  foreign  aggression.  It  is  this  tragedy  of  history 
revealed  in  the  contrast  between  actual  development, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  former  high  hopes  and  still 
latent  possibilities,  on  the  other,  that  the  reader  will 
look  upon  in  these  pages. 

In  spite  of  the  scepticism  engendered  by  her  past, 
clear-sighted  men,  with  a  colder  and  firmer  grasp 
of  realities  than  the  former  prophets,  enthusiastic- 
ally assert  that  Colombia  is  now  entering  on  a  new 
epoch,  an  era  of  peace  and  active  development  ; 
that  her  commerce  and  industries  will  expand  as  have 
those  of  Argentina  and  Mexico,  and  that  in  the  second 
century  of  independent  life  she  will  gain  that  place 
in  the  family  of  nations  to  which  her  natural 
resources   entitle  her. 

The  Republic  of  Colombia  occupies  a  large  terri- 
tory in  the  north-west  portion  of  South  America,  and 
possesses  the  unique  distinction,  among  the  countries 
of  that  continent,  of  being  washed  by  both  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  It  has  a  coast-line  of 
about  465  miles  on  the  latter  and  of  about  640  miles 
on  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  figures  can  only  be 
given  approximately,  as  the  boundary  line  with 
Panama,  like  parts  of  its  boundaries  with  other 
neighbouring  nations,  Ecuador,  Venezuela,  and  Peru, 
are  in  dispute.     With  Brazil  alone,  on  the  south-east, 


INTRODUCTION  3 

and  that  by  virtue  of  a  recent  treaty,  has  its  boundary 
been  determined. 

Before  treating  more  in  detail  of  the  various 
sections  of  the  country  and  dv^^elUng  upon  the  anthro- 
pological results  of  its  physical  geography,  a  brief 
survey  of  the  history  of  geographical  exploration 
will   be  opportune. 

The  early  Spanish  conquistadores  in  their  eager 
search  for  wealth,  and  particularly  for  El  Dorado  and 
the  country  of  the  Omaguas,  and  later  in  colonial 
times  the  Jesuit  and  other  missionaries  overran  many 
parts  of  the  land  which  long  after  remained  un- 
explored, some,  in  fact,  probably  never  again  trod 
by  white  men.  But  the  early  explorers,  in  general, 
left  no  scientific  records  :  there  is  one  notable  excep- 
tion, however  ;  Pedro  Cieza  de  Leon,  a  soldier  of 
the  earliest  days,  whose  works,  besides  being  an 
invaluable  historical  source,  evince  a  truly  scientific 
mind  and  contain  a  wealth  of  geographical  detail  to 
which  but  little  amendment  need  be  made  even  at 
this  date.  During  the  colonial  epoch,  the  coasts  were 
accurately  charted  and  geographical  knowledge  must 
have  proceeded  apace  in  the  interior,  although  few 
records  have  survived.  In  1736  two  scientists  of 
the  first  rank,  Jorge  Juan  and  Antonio  de  Ulloa,'  on 
a  royal  mission  (to  co-operate  with  the  French 
Academicians  who  were  measuring  the  equator), 
travelled  through  the  beaten  paths  of  Colombia  and 
left  scholarly  records  of  their  work. 

Later  in  the  same  century  the  noted  botanist,  Mutis, 
took  up  his  residence  in  Bogoti  and  not  only  himself 
devoted  years  of  arduous  labour  to  natural  science, 

'  These  men  were  in  no  way  related,  but  by  a  curious  blunder 
often  repeated,  the  surname  Juan  has  been  thought  to  be  the 
Christian  name  John,  and  references  are  often  found  in  English 
works  to  "  the  brothers  John  and  Anthony  Ulloa."  Even  Sir 
Clements  R.  Markham  once  inadvertently  fell  into  this  error 
(Winsor's  Narrative  and  Critical  History,  vol.  viii.,  p.  344). 


4  COLOMBIA 

but  gathered  around  him  a  number  of  ardent  and 
enthusiastic  native  disciples,  chief  among  whom  was 
Caldas.  Mutis  died  at  a  ripe  age  in  the  midst  of  his 
labours  :  Caldas  died  a  martyr  to  the  cause  of  In- 
dependence, his  promising  career  cut  short,  in  the 
flower  of  his  manhood,  by  the  Spanish  executioner. 
Neither  of  these  men  has  received  his  due  meed  of 
praise,  although  they  both  powerfully  advanced  the 
cause  of  science. 

Such  was  the  contemporary  fame  of  Mutis'  work, 
that  Humboldt  is  said  to  have  visited  Bogota  especi- 
ally to  view  his  collections.  His  valuable  papers, 
kept  in  a  Madrid  library,  not  long  ago  were  dis- 
covered to  be  a  resting-place  for  cats  !  Humboldt's 
voyage  to  the  Equinoctial  regions  (1799- 1803) 
marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  epoch  in  science  and 
was  a  fitting  opening  to  the  nineteenth  century,  pre- 
eminently the  century  of  scientific  attainment.  Two 
years  were  spent  in  Colombia,  and  his  researches 
and  those  of  his  companion  Bonpland,  in  all  lines  of 
geographical,  botanical,  zoological,  anthropological, 
geological,  meteorological,  and  astronomical  investi- 
gations, have,  as  a  whole,  never  been  surpassed.  One 
stands  aghast  at  the  comprehensiveness  of  his  genius 
and  his  painstaking  indefatigability.  His  visit  stimu- 
lated the  scientific  ardour  of  the  earnest  band  of 
Colombian  students,  and  considerable  geographical 
work  was  undertaken  by  them,  but  their  labours  were 
unfortunately  cut  short  by  the  War  for  Independence. 
In  compensation,  the  military  operations  of  this  war 
entailed  a  certain  measure  of  geographical  know- 
ledge, and,  furthermore,  there  was  a  great  influx  of 
foreign  travellers  when  Independence  was  finally 
gained. 

In  modern  times  it  is  to  foreign  enterprise,  rather 
than  to  the  Colombians  themselves,  that  we  must 
look  for  exploration,  though  many  of  the  latter  have 
distinguished     themselves     in     such     work,     notably 


INTRODUCTION  5 

Mosquera,  Codazzi  (an  Italian  by  birth,  but  in  the 
Government  service)  and  his  companions  and 
successors  in  the  Comision  Corografica  (notably 
Ancizar  and  Perez),  Reyes,  Brisson,  Vergara,  etc., 
members  of  Boundary  Survey  Commissions  and  of 
the  Oficina  de  Longitudes,  to-day  doing  splendid 
work.  Of  the  foreigners,  the  Germans  have  been 
in  the  van  :  Degenhardt,  Sievers,  Karsten,  Hettner, 
Koch-Grunberg,  and  above  all  Reiss  and  Stubel,  are 
especially  worthy  of  mention.  Among  the  French, 
Boussingault,  Crevaux,  who  closely  followed  Reyes 
after  his  rediscovery  of  the  Putumayo  and  descended 
by  the  Caqueta,  Saffray,  Andre,  and  the  brothers 
Reclus  are  noteworthy  ;  the  English  (outside  of  rail- 
road engineers)  are  confined  almost  to  Simons  and 
Robert  Blake  White,  the  latter  of  whom  lived  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  in  Colombia  ;  the  Americans, 
to  the  Isthmian  Canal  investigators,  prime  among 
whom  is  Selfridge,  the  Pan-American  Railway  Com- 
missioners, and,  in  very  recent  years.  Dr.  Hamilton 
Rice.  A  number  of  special  biological  or  arch^o- 
logical  expeditions  have  of  course  been  sent  out,  both 
in  Colombia  and  from  England,  France,  Germany, 
and  the  United  States.  The  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History  of  New  York,  under  the  direction  of 
Frank  M.  Chapman,  has  at  the  present  time  a  number 
of  men  in  the  field,  and  is  obtaining  very  important 
results,  but  there  is  still  a  vast  amount  of  work  open 
to  the  geographical  explorer  and  the  scientific  col- 
lector in  a  great  part  of  Colombia.  The  Western 
Cordillera,  large  portions  of  the  Eastern  range,  the 
Choco  and  Darien  region,  and  the  territory  lying  be- 
tween the  Amazon  and  Orinoco  tributaries  are  all 
almost  virgin  fields. 

The  most  prominent  geographical  feature  of  the 
country  is  the  great  Andean  mountain  system,  which 
is  here  divided  into  three  ranges  or  Cordilleras,  united 
at  the  extreme  south  and  known  as  the  Western  Cor- 


6  COLOMBIA 

dillera,  running  near  the  Pacific,  the  Central  Cor- 
dillera, and  the  Eastern  Cordillera. 

These  three  ranges  form  the  clue  to  the  river 
system.  A  number  of  small  rivers,  of  which  the  Mira, 
the  Dagua,  and  the  San  Juan  are  the  chief,  rise  in 
the  Western  Cordillera  and  flow  into  the  Pacific.  Be- 
tween the  Eastern  and  Central  Cordilleras  flows  the 
Magdalena,  the  chief  river  and  commercial  highway 
of  Colombia.  Between  the  Central  and  Western  Cor- 
dilleras flows  the  Cauca,  an  important  tributary  of 
the  Magdalena,  which  joins  it  where  the  Central  Cor- 
dillera dies  out.  Another  important  river  flowing 
into  the  Atlantic  is  the  Atrato,  and  of  less  conse- 
quence, the  Leon,  Sinu,  and  Rio  de  la  Hacha.  To 
the  east  of  the  Andes  are  extensive  lowland  plains 
through  which  flow  many  large  rivers,  tributaries 
either  of  the  Orinoco  or  of  the  royal  Amazon. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  Colombia  presents  three 
main  divisions  for  study  :  first,  the  coast  regions  ; 
second,  the  great  Andean  land,  with  its  valleys, 
plateaux,  and  mountains,  and  third,  the  low-lying 
eastern  territory,  subdivided  into  a  northern  part  of 
llanos  or  open  wild  pastures  and  a  southern  part  of 
impenetrable  forests,  the  selvas,  sparsely  populated, 
except  by  savages,  and  much  of  it  still  but  imperfectly 
explored.  It  is  in  the  coast  and  mountain  lands  that 
civilized  Colombia  lives,  dwells,  and  has  its  being  : 
here  is  the  bulk  of  the  population,  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment, of  learning  and  of  culture,  of  historical  tradition 
and  present  industrial  development. 

In  addition  to  the  three  Cordilleras  mentioned 
there  is  in  the  northern  part  near  the  Caribbean  Sea 
an  interesting  range  of  hills  and  mountains  which  is 
geographically  independent  of  the  Andes.  The 
Andes  run  north  and  south  :  this  range,  which  has 
its  origin  in  Venezuela,  runs  east  and  west,  forming, 
in  Colombia,  first  the  hills  of  the  Goajira  peninsula 
and  then,  divided  from  it  by  the  Rio  de  la  Hacha, 


v,rtjB^5 


S?fW- 


INTRODUCTION  7 

the  great  mountain  block  known  as  the  Sierra  Nevada 
of  Santa  Marta,  which  gradually  ascends  till  it 
reaches  in  several  peaks  the  region  of  perpetual 
snow.  Far  to  the  south  is  a  line  of  low  hills,  also 
geographically  independent  of  the  Andes,  of  more 
ancient  formation  and  forming  the  dividing  line  be- 
tween the  Amazon  and  Orinoco  watersheds,  which 
vary  the  monotony  of  the  immense  oriental  forests 
or  selvas,  but  as  to  which  there  is  but  the  scantiest 
information  extant.  These  are  known  as  the  sierras 
de  Padavida,  Tunahi,  and  Cocuy.  Other  hills  still 
further  south  are  equally  unexplored. 

The  mountain  range  which  hugs  the  coast  from  the 
mouth  of  the  San  Juan  river  north  to  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  known  as  the  Serrania  de  Baudo,  is 
placed  by  geographers  as  belonging  not  to  the  Andine 
system  proper,  but  to  the  same  range  as  the  littoral 
mountains  on  the  Caribbean  and  to  the  mountains  of 
the  West  Indian  Islands  ;  while  the  true  Western 
Cordillera  of  the  Andes  lies  a  little  to  the  east  and 
separated  from  the  Baudo  mountains  by  the  valleys 
of  the  Atrato  and  San  Juan  Rivers.  These  ranges 
offer  an  almost  virgin  field  to  the  explorer  ;  a  few 
of  the  principal  summits  have  been  scaled,  but  there 
are  vast  tracts  of  unexplored  forest  still  inhabited 
by  wild  Indians. 

The  almost  continual  rains  on  the  western  or 
Pacific  slope  of  the  Western  Cordillera  cause  a  rich 
and  luxuriant  vegetation,  while  the  eastern  slope  is 
in  most  places  rather  arid.  At  the  extreme  south, 
near  the  border  of  Ecuador,  there  are  two  twin 
peaks — Chiles  (i  5,680  feet)  and  Cumbal  (i  5,7 10 feet) 
— covered  with  perpetual  snow  ;  the  frontier  with 
Ecuador  passes  through  the  former,  which  is  notable 
also  as  forming  the  connecting  link  with  the  Central 
Cordillera.  With  these  exceptions  the  height  of  the 
western  range  is  in  general  between  6,000  feet  and 
12,000  feet,  being  broken,  however,  by  one  or  two 


8  COLOMBIA 

passes,  and  especially  by  the  remarkable  valley  of 
the  Patia  :  this  river  is  notable  as  the  only  river 
which  has  succeeded  in  forcing  its  way  through  the 
Andes  to  pour  its  waters  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  :  the 
river  itself  is  at  a  level  above  the  sea  of  little  more 
than  1,200  feet,  while  the  enormous  mountain  masses 
on  either  side  of  the  valley  tower  thousands  of  feet 
above  it. 

The  Central  Cordillera  is  far  the  most  important 
of  the  three,  forming  the  very  backbone  of  the 
country.  Being  easier  of  access  and  inhabited  for 
centuries,  it  has  been  better  explored  than  the 
western.  Here  no  savages  are  left,  and  while  a  few 
Indian  tribes  have  survived  in  almost  pure  blood  in 
some  remote  villages,  they  all  unquestionably  recog- 
nize Colombian  sovereignty  and  hold  commercial  in- 
tercourse with  the  whites.  In  the  southern  part,  in 
the  region  of  Pasto  and  Popayan,  agriculture  and 
native  industry  thrive.  Pasto  and  Popayan,  both 
on  elevated  plateaux,  are  towns  of  some  importance. 
Both  are  in  the  centre  of  interesting  mountain  groups, 
belonging  to  one  or  the  other  range.  Near  Pasto 
there  is  a  notable  group  of  volcanoes  and  snow -clad 
mountains  :  near  Popayan  are  the  picturesque 
volcanoes  of  Purace  and  Sotara — perpetually  emitting 
smoky  clouds  from  their  snowy  caps — a  few  leagues 
northward  is  one  of  the  highest  mountains  in 
Colombia,  Huila  (17,700  feet),  dominating  the  smil- 
ing Cauca  Valley  ;  thence  north,  the  dividing  ridge 
maintains  a  fairly  constant  altitude  of  about  12,000 
feet,  with  dense  vegetation,  on  both  sides,  as  here 
clouds  furnish  constant  moisture  ;  the  lower  levels, 
bearing  many  a  coffee  plantation  and  grazing  field, 
varied  by  occasional  bare  patches  due  to  local 
climatic  peculiarities,  commercially  form  parts  of  the 
Cauca  and  Magdalena  Valley  regions.  There  are 
several  passes,  but  through  none  have  roads  been 
built  north  of  the  pass  near  Popayan  till  we  reaoh 


INTRODUCTION  9 

the  neighbourhood  of  the  Quindiu  :  in  recent  years 
this  road  has  been  somewhat  shortened  by  one  or 
two  trochas  or  private  trails,  constructed  by  indivi- 
dual initiative,  but  the  bulk  of  travel  and  traffic  be- 
tween the  Cauca  and  the  Magdalena  Valleys  passes 
through  the  historic  'old  Quindiu  road,  the  old  Spanish 
highway,  which  has  had  hard  work  in  killing  its  repu- 
tation as  a  hard  road  to  travel,  to-day  wholly  un- 
deserved. Inconveniences  there  still  are,  as  almost 
everywhere  in  Colombia  ;  dangers  there  are  none — 
and  the  inconveniences  are  more  than  compensated 
by  the  spectacular  beauty  and  variety  of  the  scenery, 
appealing  to  the  lay  traveller  and  of  infinite  interest 
to  the  scientist.  The  mighty  Tolima,'  monarch  of 
the  Colombian  Andes,  rising  to  an  elevation  of 
18,400  feet,  and  its  companions  Ruiz  or  Herveo 
(18,300  feet)  and  Santa  Isabel  (16,700  feet),  EI 
Quindio  and  Santa  Maria  are  all  dazzling  with  per- 
petual snow.  On  the  flanks  of  the  Cordillera  here- 
about, the  industrious  sons  of  Antioquia  have  spread 
their  little  plantations,  and  grouped  themselves 
around  clean  little  towns  with  Oriental  or  biblical 
names — Armenia,    Circasia,    Nazareth,    etc. 

North  of  these  giants  of  the  Andes,  the  central 
range  widens  out  to  form  the  populated,  mountainous 
region  of  Antioquia,  noted  for  its  mineral  wealth. 
The  capital  of  this  department,  Medellin,  the  second 
city  of  the  Republic  in  importance,  at  an  elevation 
of  some  5,000  feet,  is  the  centre  of  a  thriving  region, 
in  many  respects  the  most  important,  from  a  com- 
mercial standpoint,  in  the  country. 

A  bit  further  to  the  north,  the  Cordillera  terminates 
in  a  series  of  foot-hills,  not  far  from  Banco,  where 
the  Cauca  River  flows  into  the  Magdalena  at  about 
8°  north  latitude. 

The  Eastern  Cordillera  also  separates  itself  from 
the  general  mountain  mass  near  Pasto.  Gigantic 
'  The  Indian  name  Tolima  means  "  land  of  ice." 


10  COLOMBIA 

tributaries  of  the  Amazon  and  the  Orinoco  spring 
from  its  flanks,  so  that  a  favourably  situated  traveller 
on  its  summits  might  see  to  the  west  the  valley  of 
the  Magdalena,  to  the  east  a  boundless  sea  of  either 
llano  or  illimitable  Amazon  forest. 

The  great  silent  forest  which  forms  the  heart  of 
the  South  American  Continent  extends  north  in 
Colombia  till  it  reaches  a  tributary  of  the  Orinoco, 
the  Guayabero.  This  river,  in  itself  of  little  impor- 
tance at  the  present  time,  forms  the  clearly  defined 
boundary  between  the  selvas  or  great  wooded  area 
of  the  Amazon  rivers  to  the  south  and  the  natural 
pastures  or  llanos,  watered  by  the  Vichada,  the  more 
important  Meta  and  the  Apure  to  the  north.  These 
last-named  rivers  flow  from  the  Andes  to  the  Orinoco, 
and  in  the  rainy  season,  with  their  tributaries  over- 
flowing their  banks,  give  the  llanos,  which  normally 
are  of  a  resplendent  waving  green,  the  appearance 
in  many  places  of  a  vast  lake,  with  slightly  more 
elevated  bits  of  land  serving  as  island  oases,  whereon, 
according  to  popular  writers  of  a  certain  brand  of 
fiction  retailed  as  travel -books  or  geography,  men, 
cattle,  savage  beasts  from  the  forest  and  crocodiles 
from  the  turbulent  waters  struggle  for  a  precarious 
foothold.  In  fact,  these  llanos  are  capable  of  sup- 
porting vast  herds  of  cattle  and  may  some  day  rival 
the  pampas  of  Argentina. 

The  Amazon  region,  the  territory  of  Caqueta,  is 
totally  undeveloped  and  but  slightly  explored,  due 
in  part  to  the  scanty  population  of  the  southern  part 
of  the  eastern  range  and  the  absence  of  roads  com- 
municating from  the  Magdalena  Valley  across  the 
Cordillera.  The  llanos  of  San  Martin  and  Casanare 
are  in  somewhat  closer,  though  still  pitiably  infre- 
quent and  difficult  communication  with  the  rest  of 
Colombia. 

But  to  return  to  our  mountains.  The  Cordillera 
Oriental  contains  many  peaks  of  the  first  rank,  the 


INTRODUCTION  11 

Sierra  Nevada  de  Chita  and  Cocui  (16,800  feet) 
being  especially  noteworthy  for  its  height  and 
grandeur.  From  Pasto  north  to  the  great  plateaux 
this  eastern  part  of  the  Andes  maintains  an  average 
height  of  more  than  7,000  feet.  About  3°  north 
latitude  it  broadens  out  into  the  great  table-land 
or  savannah  of  Bogota,  the  most  densely  populated, 
cultured,  and  prosperous  region  of  Colombia.  Hera 
is  the  capital,  Bogota,  and  a  score  of  smaller  towns 
dot  the  plateau.  Geographers  divide  the  Eastern 
Cordillera  into  three  zones  :  the  tableland  of  Bogota 
forms  the  heart  of  the  central  zone,  which  comprises 
a  varied  mass  of  mountain  and  tableland  more  than 
150  miles  broad  and  300  long.  The  northern  zone 
also  contains  important  towns,  Bucaramanga,  Ocafia, 
and  near  the  Venezuelan  frontier,  Cucuta,  all  centres 
of  coffee -raising  regions,  and  finally  dies  out  in  the 
Goajira  peninsula,  after  sending  out  an  important 
fork  which  forms  the  mountain  system  of  Venezuela. 
It  will  be  readily  seen  from  the  foregoing  brief 
sketch  of  Colombia's  topography  how  varied  and 
imposing  is  its  mountain  system  ;  its  importance 
can  hardly  be  over-estimated.  From  whatever  point 
of  view  we  examine  Colombia — be  it  scientific,  his- 
torical, political,  or  economical,  whether  we  are  in- 
vestigating the  habits  and  customs  of  its  people  or 
its  trade  routes,  markets,  and  industries — we  find 
the  mountains  an  ever-present,  a  predominant  factor. 
Separating  one  part  of  the  country  from  another, 
providing  hitherto  insuperable  obstacles  to  the  build- 
ing of  highways  and  railroads,  they  have  helped  to 
breed  or  to  maintain  local  jealousies,  fostered 
internal  strife,  hindered  patriotic  efforts  for  better- 
ment, and  in  innumerable  ;ways  heretofore  have  proved 
an  obstacle,  for  which  their  mineral  wealth  and  scenic 
grandeur  have  given  scanty  compensation.  The 
immense  impenetrable  tropical  forests,  stifling  with 
heat  and  reeking  in  miasma,  have  been  scarcely  less 


12  COLOMBIA 

of  an  impediment.  In  tlie  course  of  travel  through- 
out Colombia,  nevertheless,  we  see  how  the  skill  of 
the  engineer  is  gradually  overcoming  these  obstacles 
and  opening  ways  to  the  many  favoured  regions, 
fertile  open  valleys  and  plateaux  bathed  in  equable 
climate,  which  alike  form  the  charm  of  the  interior 
regions  of  Colombia  and  furnish  the  greatest  promise 
of  a  prosperous,  happy  future." 

'  The  best  general  geography  of  Colombia  is  Kegel :  Kolumbicn 
(Berlin,  1899).  The  most  complete  work  in  Spanish  is  F.  J.  Vergara 
Velasco's  Nueva  Geografia  (Bogota,  1901-2).  A  useful  little  com- 
pendium is  Diaz  Lemos'  school  geography  (Barcelona,  1909).  In 
English  the  best  is  contained  in  the  translation  of  vol.  xviii,  of 
Reclus'  Geographic  Universelle,  and  in  Keanc's  South  and  Central 
America  (London,  1909),  vol.  i. 


CHAPTER^    II 

CONQUEST  AND  COLONIAL   DAYS 

Although  Colombia  derives  its  name  from 
Columbus,  the  great  admiral  was  not  the  first  to 
visit  its  shores.  This  honour  belongs  to  Alonso  de 
Ojeda,  who  had  accompanied  Columbus  on  the 
latter's  second  voyage.  Ambitious  and  high-spirited, 
he  himself  aspired  to  leadership,  and,  thanks  to 
powerful  connections  at  Court  and  among  the  Seville 
merchants,  he  succeeded  in  fitting  out  an  expedition 
in  1499  •  Juan  de  la  Cosa,  who  had  also  been  with 
Columbus  on  the  second  voyage,  accompanied  Ojeda 
as  chief  pilot,  and  Amerigo  Vespucci,  destined  to 
give  his  name  to  the  new  continent,  was  also  of 
the  expedition.  After  a  rapid  voyage  across  the 
Atlantic,  Ojeda  arrived  at  the  coast  of  what  is  now 
Guiana,  and  continued  sailing  to  parts  then  still 
unvisited  by  Columbus  :  he  entered  the  Gulf  of 
Maracaibo,  and  from  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the 
houses  of  the  Indians,  built  up  on  piles  in  the  water, 
to  those  of  the  Italian  city,  he  called  the  region 
Venezuela,  or  little  Venice.  Proceeding  still  further 
along  the  coast,  he  rounded  Cape  de  la  Vela,  thus 
being  the  first  to  touch  what  is  now  Colombian 
soil.  The  condition  of  his  ships  prevented  further 
advances.  This  discovery  of  the  Colombian  coast  on 
the  Caribbean  was  completed  in  the  following  year 
by  Juan  de  la  Cosa  and  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas,  in 
whose    employ    the    former    now    was.      Ojeda    later 

13 


14  COLOMBIA 

made  several  unsuccessful  voyages,  reducing  his  for- 
tunes to  a  low  ebb.  Finally,  however.  King  Ferdi- 
nand decided  to  found  colonies  on  the  coast  of  Tierra 
Firme,  and  Ojeda's  friends  put  forward  his  claims  : 
he  was  awarded  a  grant  of  the  country  from  the 
Gulf  of  Uraba  to  the  Cape  de  la  Vela,  under  the 
name  of  Nueva  Andalucia,  while  the  region  west 
and  then  north  from  the  Gulf  known  as  '-  Castilla 
de  Oro  "  (Golden  Castile)  and  comprising  Panama 
and  Central  America  was  awarded  to  Diego  de 
Nicuesa,  an  accomplished  courtier  of  excellent 
connections. 

Ojeda  arrived  at  the  harbour  of  Cartagena  towards 
the  end  of  1509,  intending  to  found  a  colony.  He 
met  a  stout  resistance  from  the  Indians,  who  were 
neither  abashed  by  the  reading  of  the  stately  and 
formal  proclamation,  wherein  he  called  upon  them, 
in  the  name  of  the  Pope  and  the  Catholic  King  of 
Castile,  to  embrace  Christianity  and  serve  and  obey 
the  King,  nor  intimidated  by  the  dire  threats  with 
which  the  proclamation  wound  up. 

Among  those  who  fell  under  the  poisoned  arrows 
of  the  Indians  was  the  loyal  veteran  Juan  de  la  Cosa, 
and  Ojeda  himself  escaped  in  a  manner  little  less  than 
miraculous.  The  timely  arrival  of  Nicuesa,  who 
chivalrously  forgave  past  grievances  and  lent  assist- 
ance, enabled  a  due  vengeance  to  be  wreaked  on  the 
Indians  ;  but,  realizing  the  difficulties  of  a  colony 
at  this  place,  Ojeda  now  resolved  to  follow  the  course 
advised  by  Juan  de  la  Cosa,  and  settle  at  the  Gulf 
of  Uraba.  There  at  a  place  which  he  called  San 
Sebastian  he  founded  his  little  colony  :  the  hostility 
of  the  Indians  kept  the  Spaniards  entrenched  within 
their  fortress  :  hunger  and  disease  supervened,  their 
ranks  were  thinned,  factions  arose,  expected  aid  from 
Santo  Domingo  failed  to  arrive,  so  Ojeda,  with  a 
small  band,  set  sail  for  reinforcements,  leaving  the 
colony  in  command  of  Francisco   Pizarro.     Ojeda's 


CONQUEST   AND   COLONIAL   DAYS     15 

misfortunes  redoubled  :  shipwrecked  on  the  desolate 
coast  of  Cuba,  the  little  band,  through  marshes, 
swamps,  and  morasses,  pursued  its  painful  way  along 
the  coast  until  finally  succoured  by  charitable  Indians, 
with  whose  aid  he  arrived  at  Jamaica  and  then  passed 
on  to  Santo  Domingo,  "a  needy  man,  shipwrecked 
in  hope  and  fortune,"  and  "  sank  into  the  obscurity 
which  gathers  round  a  ruined  man,  and  died  poor  and 
broken  in  spirit."  i 

The  aid  that  Ojeda  had  expected  from  Santo 
Domingo  was  from  his  friend  and  business  associate 
in  the  enterprise,  the  bachelor  Martin  Fernandez  de 
Enciso,  who  set  sail,  only  to  encounter  at  Cartagena 
the  remnants  of  the  colony  which  had  been  compelled 
to  abandon  San  Sebastian.  Nothing  daunted,  Enciso 
proceeded  to  that  place,  gaining  a  fruitless  victory 
over  Indians  in  the  region  of  the  Sinu  River  en  route. 
A  similar  series  of  misfortunes  to  those  which  had 
befallen  Ojeda  induced  him  to  remove  to  the  River 
Darien  or  Atrato,  where  he  conquered  a  prosperous 
Indian  village  and  established  his  seat  of  govern- 
ment under  the  name  of  Santa  Maria  la  Antigua 
de  Darien  ;  but  mutiny  was  rife  ;  a  poor  scape- 
grace of  an  adventurer,  who  had  boarded  Enciso's 
ship  as  a  stowaway,  gained  the  ascendancy.  This 
was  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa,  the  discoverer  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  (15 13).  The  story  of  the  discovery 
of  the  Pacific  is  too  well  known  to  need  recounting 
here  :  how  Balboa,  fearing  royal  vengeance  for  past 
misdeeds,  resolved  upon  making  a  bold  play  for 
pardon  by  penetrating  to  the  vast  Southern  Sea,  of 
which  he  had  heard  report  among  the  Indians  ;  how 
his  intrepid  band,  chosen  from  the  boldest  of  his  fol- 
lowers, attended  by  some  friendly  Indians,  braved  the 
dangers  of  the  forests  and  of  savagle  tribes,  and  struck 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  ;  and  how  after  great 
hardships  he  was  rewarded,  alone  upon  the  summit  of 
'  Washington  Irving  :  The  Companions  of  Columbus. 


16  COLOMBIA 

a  high  mountain,  with  the  glorious  spectacle  of  the 
boundless  ocean. 

This  discovery  opened  up  a  new  era  of  con- 
quest, leading  the  way  to  the  rich  kingdom  of 
the    Incas. 

Upon  the  arrival  of  the  news  in  Spain,  hundreds  of 
enthusiastic  cavaliers  flocked  to  join  the  expedition 
under  command  of  Pedro  Arias  Davila,  who  had  been 
appointed  Governor  of  Darien,  and  to  whom  was 
entrusted  the  promising  enterprise  of  conquering  the 
countries  of  whose  vast  wealth  Balboa  had  heard  ; 
but  Pedrarias,  to  give  him  the  name  by  which  he  is 
best  known,  did  little  worthy  of  note  except  per- 
petrate atrocities  which  made  his  name  a  synonym 
for  cruelty.  He  soon  evinced  jealousy  of  Balboa — 
jealousy  which  grew  to  violent  animosity  and  finally 
to  the  cruel  execution  of  that  brave  spirit,  on  an 
unfounded  charge  of  treason. 

Other  adventurers  gained  more  honourable  renown 
than  Pedrarias.  Andagoya  sailed  along  the  Pacific 
coast  in  1522  as  far  south  as  Buenaventura,  the 
port  of  good  fortune  ;  but  the  great  prize,  the  rich 
country  of  the  South  Seas,  whose  fame  had  tempted 
Balboa,  fell  to  one  of  the  sturdy  band  that  had 
accompanied    him — Francisco    Pizarro. 

So  far  the  Spaniards  had  not  succeeded  in  estab- 
lishing any  permanent  settlements  or  making  any 
noteworthy  conquests  in  the  interior  of  Colombia. 
With  the  founding  of  Santa  Marta  under  Bastidas  in 
1525,  an  abiding  foothold  was  gained  by  the 
Spaniards  :  Cartagena,  still  on  the  coast,  soon 
followed  (1533).  In  a  few  years  these  towns  gained 
much  importance,  so  much  so  that  by  1536  the 
Spaniards,  fired  by  the  reports  of  a  rich  kingdom 
in  the  interior,  the  home  of  "  El  Dorado,"  and 
encouraged  by  the  ease  with  which  Pizarro  had  over- 
come the  Peruvians,  made  their  way  up  the 
Magdalena  River.     A  numerous  expedition  set  forth 


CONQUEST   AND   COLONIAL   DAYS     17 

under    command    of    Gonzalo    Jimenez    de    Quesada, 
a  native,  or  at  least  a  resident,  of  Granada  ;    obstacle 
after    obstacle    was    overcome  ;     several    boats    were 
shipwrecked   at    the   very   start  :     famine    and   fevers 
decimated   the   troop  ;    hostile   Indians   unrelentingly 
killed  and  wounded  man  after  man.    While  part  of  the 
expedition  went  up  in  boats,  the  remainder  painfully 
followed  on  the  shore,  through  swamps  and  through 
forests  scarcely  more  passable  than  the  interminable 
morasses     themselves  ;      but    the    intrepid    Quesada 
goaded  on  the  fagged  spirit  of  his  men,  sending  the 
weakest  back  to  the  coast,  till,  utterly  exhausted  and 
as  a  last  hope,  he  sent  forward  a  reconnoitring  expe- 
dition far  from  the  river  banks  along  the  mountains 
of  the  Sierra  Opon  :    these  men,  after  days  of  painful 
march,    encountered    paths    through    the    forest     and 
signs  of  comparative  civilization.      Thus  encouraged, 
Quesada's   troop  marched   on  :    himself   attacked   by 
fever,  and  deserted  without  resources  of  any  kind  on 
a  deathbed,  only  his  own  indomitable  will  pulled  him 
through,   to  rejoin  his  faltering  men  and  lead  them 
to   the   densely  populated  and   rich   kingdom  of   the 
Chibchas.     The  Chibcha  Indians  occupied  the  health- 
ful tableland  or  sabana  of  Bogota  ;    here  they  had 
attained  a  civilization,  inferior  indeed  to  that  of  the 
Aztecs  and  the  Incas,  but  which  struck  the  Spaniards 
with    surprise    after    their    long    wanderings    through 
savage  wilds  and  rugged  mountains  :    agriculture  and 
trade    flourished-;     closely    built    towns    and    villages 
with  habitations  and  temples  of  no  mean  architecture 
dotted  the  plateau  ;   a  well -developed  religion,  reflect- 
ing a  high  veneration  for  the  powers  of  nature,  helped 
to    hold    the    thousands    of    Indians    together    under 
organized   governments  :     moreover,   gold   and   silver 
jewels    and    ornaments    most    skilfully    worked    were 
abundant — in  short,  before  their  eyes  Quesada's  men 
had  the  coveted  prize  for  which  they  had  risked  so 
much. 

3 


18  COLOMBIA 

The  terror  caused  by  their  firearms,  their  strange 
appearance,  their  armour,  their  dogs,  and  their  horses, 
gained  the  Spaniards  their  first  victories  ;  though 
valiant  resistance  was  soon  offered,  it  was  met  by 
still  more  valiant  and  doughty  feats  of  arms.  The 
internal  dissensions  of  the  Indians,  wars  between  the 
Chibchas  and  their  less  civilized  but  more  warlike 
neighbours,  were  skilfully  taken  advantage  of  by 
Quesada  :  he  pitted  one  against  the  other,  and  the 
conquest  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Chibchas  was  soon  an 
accomplished  fact — the  handful  of  men  had  again 
achieved  the  impossible  and  repeated  the  exploits 
of  Cortes  and  of  Pizarro.  The  new  region  Quesada 
named,  in  honour  of  his  native  land,  the  Nuevo 
Reino  de  Granada — New  Kingdom  of  Granada — and 
the  city  which  he  proceeded  with  due  formality  to 
establish  he  called  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota.  The  founda- 
tion of  the  city  was  carried  on  with  the  utmost 
solemnity  :  Quesada  marched  thrice  around  the  new 
city  at  the  head  of  his  men,  and  then  solemnly  pro- 
claimed it  a  city  dedicated  to  the  service  of  the 
King    (1538). 

Strange  reports  of  white  men,  Spaniards,  approach- 
ing from  the  east  and  from  the  south  well-nigh 
brought  dismay  to  the  newly  established  city  :  these 
intruders  proved  to  be  the  troops  of  Federmann  and 
Benalcazar.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  coinci- 
dences in  history  had  brought  these  three  conquerors, 
Quesada,  Federmann,  and  Benalcazar,  together,  each, 
unknown  to  the  others,  starting  hundreds,  nay  thou- 
sands, of  miles  from  the  others,  marching  for  months 
and  years  through  unexplored  regions,  to  meet  in 
the  heart  of  this  new  land  !  Benalcazar  was  a  lieu- 
tenant of  Pizarro  ;  after  conquering  the  kingdom 
of  Quito,  he  had  continued  his  triumphant  march 
north  through  Pasto,  Popayan,  and  the  rich  valley 
of  the  Cauca  and  across  the  Andes.  Federmann 
is  one  of  the  leading  figures  of  the  German  occupa- 


CONQUEST   AND   COLONIAL   DAYS     19 

tion  of  Venezuela  :  '  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  heavily- 
indebted  to  the  merchant  princes  Welz  or  Welser,  had 
granted  that  country  to  connections  of  theirs,  the 
Ehingers,  who  assigned  the  grant  to  the  Welsers. 
Starting  from  Maracaibo,  expeditions  under  George 
Hohermuth  of  Spires,  known  to  the  Spaniards  as 
Jorge  Spira,  and  Ehinger  (Dalfinger)  had  explored 
much  of  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  present 
Colombia.  Federmann  continuing  further  a  few  years 
later,  after  a  journey  extending  over  three  years, 
arrived  at  the  home  of  the  Chibchas,  with  but 
1 60  men  left  of  his  original  400. 

An  armed  conflict  for  supremacy  between  these 
three  conqiiistadores  was  narrowly  averted  :  the  more 
mercenary  German  was  bought  off,  while  Benalcazar 
and  Quesada  decided  to  set  forth  together  for  Spain 
to  lay  their  respective  claims  before  the  King,  leaving 
the  government  of  the  new  kingdom  in  the  hands  of 
Quesada's  brother,  Hernan  Perez  de  Quesada. 

The  subsequent  history  of  these  men,  and  the 
struggles  of  the  budding  colony,  the  further  con- 
quests over  the  Indians,  the  stubborn  resistance  of 
certain  tribes,  notably  the  Panches,  the  Pijaos,  and 
the  Muzos,  as  portrayed  by  the  early  writers,  and  the 
expeditions  of  other  famous  conquistadores  through- 
out Colombia — Robledo,  Cesar,  Badillo,  von  Hutten, 
Pedro  de  Ursua — are  full  of  romantic  interest  ;  but 
these  fascinating  chronicles,  though  perhaps  more 
interesting,  are  less  important  than  the  political 
development    and    economic    history    of    the    colony. 

It  is  impossible  in  a  few  words  to  span  the  history 

'  For  this  interesting  phase  see  especially  Klunzinger:  Antheil 
des  Deutschen  an  der  Andeckung  von  Sud  Amcrika  (Stuttgart,  1857)  ; 
Schumacker  :  Die  Unicrnehmnngcn  der  Augsburger  Welser  in  Vene- 
zuela (Hamhurg,  1892);  Topf  :  Deutsche Statthalter  und  Konquistadoren 
in  Venezuela  (Hamburg,  1893) ;  Haebler  ;  Uberseeischen  Unterneh- 
mungen  der  Welser  (LQipzig,  1903);  Humbert  :  L' occupation  All emande 
du  Venezuela  (Bordeaux,  1905). 


20  COLOMBIA 

of  two  centuries  of  colonial  life,  with  various 
modifications  continually  being  introduced,  some  pro- 
gressive, some  retrograde,  without  indulging  in  the 
broadest  generalizations  and  leaving  aside  qualifica- 
tions and  exceptions  that  would  be  obvious  upon  a 
closer  study.  This  book  is  not  the  place  to  attempt 
a  detailed  examination,  especially  as  the  Spanish 
colonial  system  has  been  carefully  and  critically  ex- 
amined by  many  competent  authorities.  But  some 
idea  of  the  colonial  regime  is  necessary  for  an  under- 
standing of  the  present-day  Colombia. 

The  administration  of  the  colony  of  New  Granada, 
the  mode  of  life  of  its  inhabitants,  Spaniards,  Creoles, 
negroes,  and  Indians,  their  education  and  religion, 
the  methods  and  growth  of  trade  and  industry,  did 
not  differ  essentially  from  those  of  the  other  Spanish 
colonies  of  the  New  World.  A  few  local  peculiarities 
crop  up  here  and  there  :  the  names  that  fill  the 
offices  and  play  a  role  in  their  respective  histories 
vary.  New  Granada's  situation,  however,  combined 
with  the  restrictive  commercial  policy  of  Spain, 
gave  it  a  certain  historical  importance  which  it  would 
not  intrinsically  have  possessed.  Its  rich  coast  towns 
offered  a  more  tempting  bait  to  hostile  navies,  as  well 
as  to  pirates  and  buccaneers  :  trade  for  the  entire 
continent  of  South  America  was  concentrated  by  the 
Spanish  system  of  restrictive  fleets  at  Panama,  Porto - 
bello,  and  Cartagena  ;  on  its  eastern  llanos,  watered 
by  the  Orinoco  River  and  its  tributaries,  missions 
sprang  up  on  a  scale  rivalled  only  in  Paraguay  :  as 
a  mining  country  it  was  second  only  to  Peru  and 
Mexico  ;  as  an  agricultural  colony  it  was  perhaps 
unsurpassed. 

With  exceptions  of  the  class  noted,  however,  the 
history  of  New  Granada,  with  but  a  change  of  names 
and  places,  might  be  the  history  of  almost  any  other 
Spanish  colony  in  America.  As  has  been  justly 
observed  by  a  learned  German  historian,  Professor 
Konrad  Haebler  : 


CONQUEST   AND   COLONIAL   DAYS     21 

**  From  the  position  which  the  Spanish  colonies 
held  in  relation  to  the  mother  country,  it  naturally 
follows  that  they  possessed  no  independent  history. 
Their  history  comprised  the  change  of  officials,  the 
incidental  alterations  in  their  administrative  organiza- 
tion, and  the  regulations  for  the  furtherance  of  the 
economic  interests  instituted  far  more  for  the  benefit 
of  Spain  than  for  that  of  the  colonies.  It  was  owing 
to  Spain's  dependence  on  them  that  they  became  in- 
volved in  all  the  political  complications  of  the  mother 
country.  The  history  of  all  that  the  colonies  had 
to  suffer  as  part  of  the  Spanish  kingdom  at  the 
hands  of  Spain's  opponents  is  the  nearest  approach 
to  a  general  history  of  the  colonial  empire."  ^ 

The  administration  and  trade  of  these  colonies 
from  the  beginning  centred  in  Spain,  and  the  same 
policy  was  pursued  for  all.  In  nearly  every  one 
we  find  almost  the  same  story — the  gradual  conquest 
and  total  subjugation  of  the  Indians,  except  in  remote 
regions  ;  the  introduction  of  negro  slaves  ;  at  first 
a  period  of  badly  organized  government,  with  a 
bewildering  confusion  of  authority  among  consejos, 
audiencias,  fiscales,  visitadores,  jueces  de  residencia, 
succeeded  by  a  period  of  more  centralized  authority 
under  a  president,  captain-general,  or  viceroy,  but 
still  with  an  infinity  of  red  tape  and  appeals  to 
superior  officials  in  Spain,   and  effective  jurisdiction 

'  Vol.  i.,  p.  414,  Helinolt's  History  of  the  World  (New  York,  1902), 
For  the  analysis  of  the  Spanish  colonial  system  here  presented  I 
am  indebted  mainly  to  Haebler,  to  Professor  Bernard  Moses'  The 
Establishment  of  Spanish  Rule  in  America,  and  to  the  chapters  on 
that  subject  in  Haring's  Buccaneers  in  the  West  Indies,  Roscher's 
Kolonien  (tr.  by  Bourne,  N.Y.,  1904),  and  Hirst's  Argentitia  (South 
American  Series).  For  the  particular  history  of  the  New  Granada 
colony  I  have  mainly  followed  Plaza,  whose  book,  as  well  as  that  of 
Acosta,  would  well  merit  translation.  Sir  Clement  R.  Markham's 
The  Conquest  of  New  Granada  (London  and  New  York,  1912),  just 
published,  is  the  first  attempt  to  present  the  EngHsh  reader  with  a 
history  of  that  subject. 


22  COLOMBIA 

"  petering  out  "  in  the  sparsely  settled  hinterland  ; 
conflicts,  on  the  one  hand,  between  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  on  the  other  petty 
jealousies  between  Creoles  and  Spaniards  ;  the  in- 
sistence upon  false,  but  then  universally  believed, 
economic  doctrines  as  to  the  necessity  of  hoarding 
the  precious  metals  ;  restrictions  on  commerce,  with 
the  inevitable  corollary — contraband  trade,  often  con- 
nived at  by  the  colonial  officials  themselves,  which 
bred  a  certain  disregard  for  law  and  authority  that 
has  left  its  fatal  consequences  to  this  day  ;  the  blight 
and  stagnation  caused  by  a  fanatical  and  powerful 
Church  ;  a  lack  of  roads  and  bridges  and  public 
improvements  in  general,  and  a  dearth  of  educational 
facilities,  except  those  grudgingly  afforded  by  the 
clergy,  but  shortly  before  the  Independence,  under 
the  Bourbon  kings,  the  prevalence  of  a  somewhat 
more  liberal  and  enlightened  policy. 

The  main  principle  of  the  Spanish  colonial  regime, 
at  least  in  the  first  century  or  two,  from  which  most 
of  its  distinctive  features  sprang,  was  that  the  colonies 
were  the  personal  appanage  and  exclusive  private 
property  of  the  crown.  The  marked  characteristics 
resulting  from  this  doctrine  may  be  briefly  sum- 
marized as  follows  :  i .  The  concentration  of  all 
political  administration  and  commercial  privileges  in 
appointees  or  licensees  of  the  crown.  2.  The  strict 
control  over  admission  to  the  colonies.  3.  The  con- 
centration of  trade  at  a  very  few  ports — in  Spain, 
at  first,  at  Seville  alone  ;  the  institution  of  the  fleets 
and  galleons  for  carrying  on  the  trade  exclusively 
(with  resulting  high  prices  and  contraband).  4.  A 
protective  attitude  towards  the  Indians,  resulting,  in 
laudable  contrast  to  their  destruction  in  the  English 
colonies  in  America,  in  the  preservation  of  these 
wards  of  the  State,  and,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
their  assimilation. 

It  is  this  last  feature  that  constitutes  the  one  great 


CONQUEST   AND   COLONIAL   DAYS     23 

virtue  of  the  Spanish  colonial  system  ;  while,  it  is 
true,  actual  practice  did  not  always  come  up  to  the 
high  ideals  of  justice  and  fair  dealing  entertained  by 
the  Catholic  kings,  and  the  colonists  often  com- 
mitted acts  of  cruelty  (greatly  exaggerated  by  most 
historians,  however)  towards  the  heathen,  especially 
in  the  working  of  the  mines,  where  hundreds  met 
their  death,  nevertheless,  the  fact  that  the  Indian 
race  has  here  in  South  America  survived  as  nowhere 
else,  proves  the  merit  of  the  Spanish  treatment,  while 
the  force  of  the  Spanish  character  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  such  civilization  as  exists  throughout  the 
Spanish  part  of  Latin  America  is  essentially  a  Spanish 
civilization  :  languages,  customs,  education,  religion, 
administration,  are  all  Spanish,  and  that  no  matter 
whether  the  predominating  element  among  the  popu- 
lation be  European,  African,  or  Indian. 

The  protective  attitude  towards  the  Indians  was 
the  cause  of  the  introduction  of  negro  slaves  :  Las 
Casas,  with  his  narrow  philanthropic  ideas,  recom- 
mended their  importation  on  a  large  scale  as  a 
means  of  freeing  his  own  pet  proteges  from 
oppression.  The  colonies  were  greatly  in  need  of 
labour  which  the  Europeans  either  could  not  or  would 
not  supply  ;  the  negroes  throve  in  the  congenial 
climate  of  the  tropics,  and  as  the  supply  produced  by 
the  "  Asiento,"  the  contract  for  the  monopoly  of  the 
slave  trade,  was  insufficient  to  meet  the  demand,  a 
lucrative  smuggling  trade,  by  foreign  shipowners, 
soon  grew  up  in  the  community. 

The  individual  history  of  the  New  Granada  colony 
needs  but  few  words.  As  commonly  known  or 
written,  it  contains  little  of  importance  apart  from 
the  general  Spanish  colonial  regime  of  which  we 
have  just  spoken.  The  vital  part — the  inevitable 
change  in  the  character  of  the  population,  due  to 
the  influence  of  climate,  etc.,  and  cross-breeding,  and 
the  evolution  of  its  savage  tribes — has  been  ignored. 


24  COLOMBIA 

and  consequently  still  presents  an  open  field  for  the 
ethnologist  and  scientific  historian. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  first  decades  after  the 
conquest  were  passed  under  a  bewildering  confusion 
of  authority,  civil  and  ecclesiastical.  Official  after 
official  was  not  merely  tried,  but  suspended  by  the 
special  judges,  called  jueces  de  residencia,  sent  from 
abroad  as  investigators,  and  often  invested  with 
administrative  functions  as  well.  One  of  the  most 
notorious  of  these  jueces  de  residencia  was  the  visi- 
tador  Montaiio,  who  came  to  Bogota  in  1552.  Auto- 
cratic and  revengeful,  he  initiated  a  period  of  black 
terror,  and  his  avarice  led  him  to  pillage  Indians 
and  Spaniards  alike.  He,  too,  was  residenciado,  sent 
prisoner  to  Spain,  condemned  to  death,  and  paid  the 
penalty  for  his  crimes. 

The  lamentable  state  of  the  colony's  public  affairs 
finally  caused  the  crown  to  appoint  a  President  of 
the  Royal  Chancellery,  with  the  office  of  Governor 
and  Captain-General  of  New  Granada,  absolutely 
independent  of  the  viceroys  of  Peru  and  endowed 
with  correspondingly  large  powers.  Fortunately  a 
good  choice  was  made  for  this  delicate  post,  in  the 
person  of  Dr.  Andres  Diaz  Venero  de  Leiva,  a 
laborious  official,  prudent  but  firm,  well  educated  and 
experienced  in  affairs,  who  arrived  at  Cartagena  in 
1563  and  reached  Bogota  the  following  year.  His 
first  measures  were  to  lighten  the  burdens  of  the 
Indians,  literally  as  well  as  figuratively,  for  among 
other  reforms  it  was  prohibited  to  use  them  as 
carriers  :  tribes  were  collected  into  towns,  lands 
given  them  to  cultivate  as  their  own,  under  the  name 
of  resguardos,  interpreters  settled  among  them, 
schools  and  churches  opened  to  teach  them  the  ele- 
ments of  religion  and  the  Spanish  language,  reading 
and  writing,  and  a  special  oidor,  or  public  attorney, 
was  appointed  to  protect  their  rights.  Venero  also 
inaugurated      various      public      improvements,      pro- 


CONQUEST   AND   COLONIAL   DAYS     25 

mulgated  ordinances  for  the  better  working  of  the 
mines,  sent  a  commissioner  to  examine  the  famous 
emerald  deposits  of  Muzo,  and  even  gave  the  first 
impulse  towards  higher  education  by  forwarding  a 
petition  for  a  university.  It  was  not  till  the  middle 
of  the  next  century,  however,  that  any  advance  was 
made  in  this  direction,  and  then  two  universities,  so 
called,  were  founded,  one,  St.  Thomas,  under  the 
charge  of  the  Dominicans,  and  the  other,  San  Xavier, 
under  the  Jesuits.  Even  more  important  than  these 
was  the  colleg;e  of  Nuestra  Seiiora  del  Rosario 
(1653),  which,  in  addition  to  the  mediaeval  philo- 
sophy, taught  law  and  medicine,  "  a  first  ray  of  light, 
dim  as  it  was,  in  a  dark  atmosphere." 

Another  of  the  early  governors  worthy  of  honour- 
able mention,  in  contrast  to  the  run  of  avaricious 
officials  whose  main  desire  was  to  extort  wealth 
enough  to  reimburse  themselves  for  the  price  which 
they  had  generally  paid  for  their  offices,  was  the 
President  Borja,  who  died  in  1628,  after  maintain- 
ing peace  and  order  during  the  twenty-two  years  of 
his  incumbency. 

The  cities  on  the  coast  had  a  more  troubled  exist- 
ence :  they  lived  in  constant  dread  of  marauders 
from  the  sea.  Santa  Marta  and  Rio  Hacha  were 
sacked  time  and  time  again,  while  Cartagena  and 
Portobello  were  ever  coveted  prizes.  Sir  Francis 
Drake,  more  than  any  other  seaman  of  his  day, 
inspired  terror  throughout  the  Spanish  domain.  In 
1586  occurred  his  famous  sack  of  Cartagena,  where, 
in  addition  to  all  the  booty,  he  obtained  110,000 
ducats  ransom  under  a  threat  to  fire  the  town.  Exe- 
crated as  a  bloody  pirate  and  devilish  monster  by 
the  Spaniards,  he,  too,  has  received  his  vindication 
at  the  hands  of  history,  and  his  true  place,  as  a 
discoverer  and  not  a  marauder,  has  been  assigned 
to  him. I     It  was  in  the  next  century,  however,  especi- 

'  See  Lady  Elliott  Drake's  The  Family  and  Heirs  of  Sir  Francis 
Dra^e  (London,  1911). 


26  COLOMBIA 

ally  after  the  French  settlement  of  Hispaniola  and 
the  capture  of  Jamaica  by  the  English,  that  priva- 
teers, buccaneers,  and  seamen  frankly  turned  pirates, 
flourished  in  the  West  Indies,  again  and  again 
attacking  the  towns  of  the  Spanish  Main.  Their 
exploits  teem  with  striking  adventures — a  veritable 
riot  of  blood  and  booty,  greed  and  glory,  which  has 
furnished  many  a  thrilling  page  for  romancers,  poets, 
and  historians.!  Their  culminating  exploits  were  the 
daring  march  of  Sir  Henry  Morgan  and  his  men 
across  the  isthmus  to  the  capture  of  Panama  (1688) 
and  the  participation  of  the  buccaneers  in  the  French 
attack  and  capture  of  Cartagena  under  Pointis  in 
1697,  a  fitting  ending  to  the  history  of  these  bold 
bands,  who,  having  served  their  ends,  were  thereafter 
suppressed  by  the  French  and  English  Governments. 
The  easy  victory  obtained  at  Cartagena  is  partly 
explainable  by  the  decay  of  the  power  of  the  civil 
and  military  authorities  under  the  dominance  of  the 
officers  of  the  Tribunal  of  the  Inquisition,  which  had 
been  established  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  and 
rapidly  grew  to  power.  The  sacking  of  the  city 
proved  a  blessing  in  disguise,  for  with  it  began  the 
decline  of  the  much  hated  Tribunal. 2 

In    17 18    New  Granada  was   erected  into  a  vice- 

'  The  most  valuable  modern  work  on  the  buccaneers  is  C.  H. 
Haring  :  The  Buccaneers  in  the  West  Indies  in  the  Seventeenth  Century 
(London  and  N.Y.,  1910),  with  an  exhaustive  bibliography.  He 
omits,  however,  the  South  American  historians,  among  whom  may 
be  mentioned  Vicente  Restrepo  :  hwasiones  de  los  bucancros  en  el 
siglo  XVII,  1884.  Acosta  de  Samper  :  Los  Piratas  en  Cartagena 
(Bogota,  1886)  ;  Melville  :  Piratas  que  infestaron  la  America  del  Sur, 
etc.  (1567-1763),  (Santiago,  Chile,  1876),  and  one  or  two  rare  Spanish 
items  (see  Medina's  Biblioteca,  Nos.  724,  741). 

="  For  the  history  of  the  Inquisition  at  Cartagena,  see  J.  Toribio 
Medina  :  Hist,  del  Tribunal  de  la  Inquisicion  de  Cartagena  (Santiago, 
Chile,  1899),  and  H.  C.  Lea  :  The  Inquisition  in  the  Spanish  Depen- 
dencies (London  and  N.Y.,  1908).  Petre's  on  dit  that  there  were 
400,000  victims  is  a  rank  absurdity. 


HOUSE   OF  THE   INQUISITION. 


To  face  p.  26. 


CONQUEST   AND   COLONIAL   DAYS     27 

royalty  for  a  few  years  only.  In  1740,  however,  a 
Viceroy  was  again  appointed,  and  the  colony  re- 
mained under  this  form  of  government  until  its 
independence.  It  had  now  gained  a  tolerable  degree 
of  material  prosperity  :  European  live  stock  and 
plants  had  been  introduced  in  the  earliest  days,  and 
agriculture  had  now  attained  a  fairly  high  develop- 
ment. Cacao,  tobacco,  and  hides,  as  well  as  the 
products  of  the  forest,  such  as  the  balsam  of  Tolu 
and  the  still  more  famous  Peruvian  or  Jesuits'  bark, 
quinine,  were  exported  in  considerable  quantities. 
But  the  principal  industry  was  mining.  New 
Granada  was,  during  the  century  of  which  we  are 
speaking,  the  chief  gold -producing  country  of  the 
Spanish  domain,   if  not  of  the  world. 

And  so  the  eighteenth  century  moved  peacefully, 
sluggishly   along. 

One  event  stands  out  as  of  particular  interest  to 
the  English — 'the  ill-fated  attempt  of  Admiral  Vernon 
against  Cartagena  in  1741.  His  large  naval  force 
and  an  equally  imposing  army  under  General  Went- 
worth  arrived  with  the  confident  expectations  of  an 
easy  victory  over  the  town  that  had  fallen  a  prey 
to  Drake  and  the  French.  The  city  was  assailed 
for  several  weeks  ;  frustrated  in  their  designs,  the 
British  forces  were  finally  compelled  to  retire,  and 
so  ended  the  last  attempt  of  the  English  to  gain  a 
foothold  in  this  corner  of  South  America.  A  pre- 
vious attempt,  of  equally  melancholy  interest  to  the 
British  historian,  had  been  the  Scots  Colony  estab- 
lished in  1698  by  the  brilliant  William  Paterson, 
founder  of  the  Bank  of  England.  His  was  a  mag- 
nificent, far-sighted,  and  fore-sighted  scheme.  Had 
his  plans  been  followed,  "  Darien  might  have  been 
to  Britain  another  India."  Instead,  the  ill-suited 
settlers  from  the  cold  and  sterile  North  not  only 
met  with  the  greatest  hardships  on  the  inhospitable 
shores  of  Darien,   but  the  bitterest  political   feeling 


28  COLOMBIA 

and  the  most  violent  antagonism  between  Scotch  and 
English  was  evoked  at  home.  To  protect  the  colony, 
over  which  the  whole  kingdom  of  Scotland  had  gone 
mad,  the  Scotch  desired,  the  English  declined,  a  war 
with  Spain.  A  company  had  been  formed  under 
an  Act  of  the  Scottish  Parliament,  and  five  vessels 
with  more  than  a  thousand  emigrants  set  sail,  land- 
ing at  Puerto  Escoces  on  Caledonia  Bay — the  names 
survive  to  this  day,  melancholy  reminders  of  a 
glorious  dream.  The  small  remnant  of  the  colony 
that  had  alone  been  spared  by  the  tropical  fevers 
offered  but  slight  resistance  to  a  Spanish  expedition 
sent  to  frustrate  Paterson's  ambitious  designs  to 
capture  for  Scotland  the  rich  South  Sea  trade  and 
the   wealth    of  both   the    Indies.' 

'  The  contemporary  literature  of  the  Scots  Colony  and  Vernon's 
expedition  was  most  abundant,  and  the  subjects  have  not  been 
neglected  since.     Among  other  books,  see — 

For  the  Scots  Colony:  Macaulay  :  History  of  Enf^land,  ch.  xxiv. 
("  brilliant  account,"  but  "  incorrect  and  misleading ") ;  Burton's 
History  of  Scotland,  vol.  viii.,  ch.  84)  ;  Life  of  W.  Paterson,  by  S. 
Banister  (Edinburgh,  1858)  ;  Paterson's  Works,  ed.  by  S.  Banister 
(London,  1859)  ;  A  Short  Account  from  Darien  (Edinburgh,  1699)  ; 
A  Defence  of  the  Scots  Settlement  at  Darien  (Edinburgh,  1699) ;  A  Just 
and  Modest  Vindication  of  the  Scots  Design  (1699)  ;  A  Defence  of  the 
Scots  abdicating  Darien  (1700) ;  Certain  Propositions  Relating  to  the 
Scots  Plantation  (Glasgow,  1700)  ;  An  Inquiry  into  the  Cause  of  the 
Miscarriage  of  the  Scots  Colony  (Glasgow,  1700)  ;  James  Huston's 
Works.  Francis  Borland  :  Memoirs  of  Darien  (ist  ed.,  Glasgow, 
1715,  anon.,  reprinted  under  title  The  History  of  Darien,  Glasgow, 
1779  ;  London,  1753)  ;  Barbour  :  Histoiy  of  William  Paterson  and  of 
the  Darien  Colony  (London,  1807)  ;  Sir  Walter  Scott :  Tales  of  a 
Grandfather;  Cullen  :  Isthmus  of  D alien  Ship  Canal,  with  a  History 
of  the  Scotch  Colony  (2nd  ed.,  1853)  ;  B.  Taylor  in  19  Scot.  Rev.,  54  ; 
H.  Bingham  in  3  Scot.  Hist.  Rev.,  210,  316,  437 ;  J.  H.  Burton  :  Darien 
Papers  (1849)  ;  Sir  John  Dalrymple  :  Memoirs,  vol.  i. 

For  Vernon's  attack  on  Cartagena :  A  Geographical  and  Historical 
Description  of  the  Principal  Objects  of  the  Present  War,  viz.,  Cartagena? 
etc.  (London,  1741) ;  The  Conduct  of  Admiral  Vernon  Examined  and 
Vindicated  (1741)  ;  A71  Account  of  the  Expedition  to  Cartagena  (1743) ; 
Authentic  Papers  Relating  to  the  Expedition,  etc.  (1744)  '>  Journals  of 
the  Expedition,  etc.  (1744) ;  Original  Papers  relating  to  the  Expe- 


CONQUEST   AND   COLONIAL   DAYS     29 

The  defeat  of  Vernon  had  proved  the  efficiency 
and  justified  the  cost  of  the  massive  fortifications 
at  Cartagena,  had  given  the  inhabitants  of  New 
Granada  and  their  governors  renewed  self-con- 
fidence, and  once  again  left  the  country  free  for 
the  development  of  its  internal  affairs.  Under  a 
somewhat  more  enlightened  government,  a  fair 
measure  of  progress  was  achieved  in  the  second  half 
of  the  century  :  the  restrictions  on  commerce  were 
relaxed  ;  roads  and  bridges  were  built,  and  carriers, 
on  foot,  on  horseback,  or  in  canoes,  carried  the  mails 
with  regularity  and  with  really  surprising  speed, i 
considering  the  difficulties  they  had  to  contend 
against  ;  there  was  a  notable  improvement  in  the 
civil  service  ;  above  all,  education  and  intellectual 
light  began  to  filter  in — the  sciences  were  taught  ; 
in  1 79 1  a  weekly  periodical  saw  the  light  in  Bogota, 
and  a  botanical  survey  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
Jose  Celestino  Mutis  grouped  around  that  eminent 
naturalist  a  number  of  enthusiastic  young  disciples 
who  displayed  keen  intellectual  activities  in  many 
directions.  The  ground  was  being  prepared  for  the 
spread  of  liberal  ideas,  which  were  to  result  in 
throwing   off   the   Spanish   yoke. 

Whether  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  the 
Spanish  domains  (1767)  was  due  to  the  liberal  ideas 

dition  (1744) ;  A  Letter  to  the  Hon.  Edward  Vernon,  from  John 
Cathcart  (1744)  ;  Smollett's  Works,  ed.  by  W.  E.  Henley  (1898) ; 
Expedition  to  Carthagena,  also  Roderick  Random  ;  W.  F.  Vernon  : 
Memoirs  of  Admiral  Vernon  (London,  1861) ;  C.  W,  Hall :  Carthagena 
or  the  Lost  Brigade  (Boston,  1898) ;  W.  Clark  in  93  Harper's  Mag., 
p.  753  (1896)  ;  Proc.  Mass.  Hist.  Soc,  March,  1881  ;  Douglas  Ford  : 
Admiral  Vernon  and  the  Navy  (1907)  ;  Nieto  :  Geografia  Historica  dc 
Cartagena  (Cart.,  1839) ;  Diario  de  todo  lo  occurrido  en  .  .  .  Carta- 
gena (Madrid,  1741  ;  reprinted  in  Tres  Tratados  de  America,  Madrid, 
1894) ;  French  version,  Journal  du  Siege  de  Carthagcne  (Paris,  1741). 
'  Although  offered  horses,  the  Indian  carriers  often  decHned, 
saying  "The  horses  get  tired,  but  we  do  not."  Pando,  Ytinerario de 
Correos  (MSS.  circa  1780  in  N.Y.  Publ.  Lib.). 


30  COLOMBIA 

of  the  King  or  to  other  grounds  is  somewhat 
doubtful  :  the  immediate  causes  for  this  in  many 
respects  mistaken  action  have  remained  obscure. 
One  thing  is  certain — the  wealth  of  the  Jesuits  had 
increased  enormously.  Not  only  had  they  brought 
thousands  of  Indians  under  their  government  at  the 
missions,  but  throughout  New  Granada  they  owned 
much  of  the  richest  agricultural  and  pastoral  land. 
At  the  missions  they  were  doubtless  rendering  a 
measure  of  useful  service  in  civilizing  the  Indians, 
who  led  in  socialistic  communities  lives  of  almost 
idyllic  content  and  goodwill,  though  sapped  of  all 
mental  power  and  vigour  of  character,  in  childlike 
dependence  upon  the  good  fathers  ;  but  in  the 
civilized  regions  of  the  colony  no  less  certainly  were 
their  vast  holdings  in  mortmain  a  hindrance  to 
even  material  development.  The  Jesuits  soon  had 
their  revenge  :  their  secret  part  in  the  movement 
against  Spain  has  been  shown  by  recent  investi- 
gations to  have  been  of  great  importance. 

The  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  adoption  of 
the  new  commercial  code  are  the  only  striking  events 
of  the  close  of  the  colonial  epoch.  The  imposition 
of  certain  additional  taxes,  by  way  of  fiscal  reform, 
aroused  opposition  which  led  to  armed  revolt  ;  but 
although  no  attempt  was  then  made  to  throw  off 
Spanish  allegiance,  nor,  in  fact,  till  thirty  years  later, 
yet  this  popular  uprising  of  1781  has  a  certain  con- 
nection with  the  movement  for  independence  to 
which  it  formed  a  prelude,  and  therefore  more 
properly  belongs   to   the   epoch   of   the   Revolution. 


CHAPTER     III 

MODERN    HISTORY 

The  utter  lack  of  means  of  communication  between 
the  isolated  and  scantily  inhabited  communities  of 
the  colony  would  have  made  any  concerted  move- 
ment for  independence  utterly  impossible  during  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries — even  had  daring 
brains  ever  dreamed  of  such  an  idea.  A  quiet,  law- 
abiding  submission  to  Spanish  authority,  smuggling 
apart,  was  characteristic  of  the  colonial  history,  refut- 
ing the  theory,  occasionally  put  forward  to  explain 
the  frequency  of  South  American  revolutions,  that 
there  is  an  inherent  tendency  in  the  people  to  political 
strife  and  lawlessness.  After  the  subjugation  of  the 
Indians  there  was  a  long  period  of  unbroken 
tranquillity. 

An  adventurer  of  ill -repute.  Lope  de  Aguirre,  had, 
it  is  true,  as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century,  run 
amuck  in  Venezuela  and  the  llanos  of  Colombia,  and 
in  open  revolt  proclaimed  the  intention  of  freeing 
the  colony  from  the  oppressive  yoke  of  crown  and 
clergy.  He  has  come  down  in  history  as  a  blood- 
thirsty, probably  insane,  villain  ;  but  perhaps  he 
should  be  credited  as  a  revolutionary  centuries  ahead 
of  his  epoch  and  a  forerunner  of  Miranda  and 
Bolivar. 

From  the  time  of  Aguirre's  outbreak  there  was 
no  revolt  of  any  kind  among  the  Spanish  settlers 
in  New  Granada  until   1781.     In  that  year  occurred 

31 


32  COLOMBIA 

the  uprising  of  the  Comuneros  of  Socorro  and  other 
towns,  aroused  by  obnoxious  fiscal  measures  and  en- 
couraged by  exaggerated  reports  of  Tupuc-Amaru's 
successes  in  Peru.  This  was  in  no  way  a  movement 
for  independence,  but  was  of  importance  as  show- 
ing how  easily  the  populace,  if  aroused,  could  gain 
the  upper  hand  over  the  Spanish  authorities  :  by 
treachery  alone  were  the  Comuneros  overcome. 
Their  revolt  gave  food  for  thought  a  few  years 
later  to  a  few  intellectual  progressives,  whose  secret 
ardour  for  liberty  was  inflamed  by  the  slow  but 
steady  spread,  even  in  the  remote  American  colonies, 
of  the  principles  of  human  freedom  and  equality  as 
expounded  by  the  French  Revolution  and  in  the 
United  States.  The  Paris  Convention's  Declaration 
of  the  Rights  of  Man  was  translated  and  circulated 
by  a  brilliant  youth  of  Bogota,  Antonio  Narifio — 
a  dire  offence  which  caused  his  arrest,  dispatch  to 
Spain,  and  imprisonment,  but  which  has  given  him 
immortal  fame  in  Colombia  under  the  title  of  the 
Precursor. 

Another  enthusiast,  who  had  fought  under 
Washington  and  had  made  his  mark  in  the  French 
armies,  Francisco  de  Miranda, ^  obtained  private  aid 
in  England  and  the  United  States,  after  failing  to 
gain  the  support  of  either  Government  for  his  plans^ 

'  For  Miranda,  see  [Biggs]  History  of  .  .  .  Mirandas  Attempt, 
Boston,  1808  (several  editions  in  following  years) ;  Minutes  of 
the  Court  Martial  .  .  .  of  Sir  Home  Popham  (London,  1807) ; 
[Sherman]  General  Account  of  Miranda's  Expedition  (N.Y.,  1808) ; 
Lloyd  :  The  Trials  of  .  .  .  Smith  and  Ogdcn  (N.Y.,  1807)  ;  Ante- 
para  :  South  American  Emancipation  (London,  1810) — (written  by 
Miranda,  Antepara  merely  lending  his  name)  ;  Moses  Smith  :  History 
of  the  Adventures  and  Sufferings  of  (Brooklyn,  1812,  Albany,  1814) ; 
Leben  und  Schicksale  des  Gen.  Miranda  (1807)  ;  Buchez  et  Roux  : 
Histoirc  parlementaire,  xxvii.,  26-70  (his  trial  in  France  for  treason) ; 
Marques  dc  Rojas  :  El  General  Miranda  (Paris,  1884);  A.  Rojas: 
Miranda  dans  la  Revolution  Franfaise  (Caracas,  i88g) ;  Becerra  : 
Ensayo  historico  documentado  de  la  vida  dc  Miranda,  2  vols.  (1896) ; 
and  articles  in  A/uHrfw/ (Paris,  1912). 


MODERN   HISTORY  33 

and  led  a  small  expedition  in  1806  to  free  Vene- 
zuela :  foredoomed  to  failure,  the  ending  was 
miserable  ;  many  of  his  followers  were  captured, 
some    cruelly    put    to    death. 

The  cry  for  independence  was  in  swing,  but 
only  among  the  liberal  few  :  there  was  no  popular 
demand,  nor  were  the  people  ripe  for  self-govern- 
ment. A  concerted  movement  was  still  well-nigh  im- 
possible among  such  widely  scattered  communities, 
and  the  first  steps  were  the  isolated  actions  of  town 
councils.  Independence  would  have  been  indefinitely 
delayed  had  there  been  a  stable  Government  in  the 
mother  country  herself,  but  when  a  crisis  came  in. 
the  internal  political  affairs  of  Spain,  when  Napoleon 
ousted  the  King  and  installed  in  his  place  his  own 
brother  Joseph,  one  town  council  or  junta  after 
another  in  the  colonies  proclaimed  its  independence, 
though  declaring  itself  still  loyal  to  Ferdinand  VII. 

There  was  more,  however,  than  mere  opposition 
and  antipathy  to  French  rule  back  of  the  revolt  of 
the  town  councils  :  the  Creoles,  the  permanent  inhabi- 
tants of  Spanish  descent,  had  always  felt  jealous  of 
the  Spaniards  sent  to  fiill  colonial  offices  and  their 
adherents.  The  statement  frequently  made  by  super- 
ficial writers  that  the  natives  were  excluded  from 
participation  in  the  public  administration  is  not  true  ; 
to  the  very  highest  offices  they  were  not  appointed, 
but  the  greater  number  of  subordinate  official  posts 
were  frequently  filled  by  them.  Nevertheless,  they 
constantly  felt  they  were  not  being  given  their  fair 
share.  The  opportunity  was  now  at  hand  for  the 
Creoles  to  gain  the  ascendancy  over  the  Spaniards, 
contemptuously  called  chapetones.     It  was  grasped. 

Of  the  acts  of  independence,  that  of  Bogota,  the 
seat  of  the  Viceroy,  was  the  most  consequential.  The 
struggle  for  freedom  in  New  Granada  may  be  said 
to  have  had  its  definite  beginning  on  the  20th  day 
of  July,    1 8 10,  when  the  junta  at  the  capital,  called 

4 


34  COLOMBIA 

together  by  the  insistence  of  the  populace  (aroused 
by  a  trivial  incident  between  a  Creole  and  a 
Spaniard),  and  after  an  all-night  session,  backed  up 
by  a  mob  of  six  or  seven  thousand  patriots  assembled 
throughout  the  night  in  the  public  square,  declared 
the  supreme  government  of  New  Granada  transferred 
from  the  Spanish  authorities  to  themselves  as  repre- 
senting the  Sovereignty  of  the  People,  and  further 
resolved  that  a  call  for  the  election  of  deputies  from 
the  several  provinces  be  sent  out  to  join  the  junta 
in  adopting  a  constitution  for  a  federation  of  free 
and  independent  sovereign  states.  The  otherwise 
startlingly  revolutionary  character  of  this  declara- 
tion was  tempered  by  a  reservation  of  loyalty  to 
King  Ferdinand — a  reservation  soon  cast  to  the 
winds  by  the  ambitious  leaders  of  the  new  ideas. 
Not  all  the  provinces  responded  to  the  call  sent 
out  by  the  Bogota  junta.  Many,  like  Cartagena, 
in  their  local  pride,  preferred  their  own  undisturbed 
sway  :  a  few,  like  Pasto,  under  the  domination  of 
a  fanatical  clergy,  stubbornly  remained  loyal  to  the 
Spanish  authorities.  The  remnants  of  ultra -marine 
rule  could  have  been  readily  extinguished,  but  there 
was  unhappily  initiated  a  period,  bordering  on 
anarchy,  of  impotent  civil  strife,  aptly  dubbed  by 
Colombian  historians  "  la  patria  hoha  " — "  foolish  " 
in  that,  neglecting  the  opportunity  to  cement  the 
foundations  of  the  nation  against  the  inevitable  future 
attempt  of  Spain  to  regain  her  power,  the  country's 
energies  were  misspent  in  civil  life.  Simon  Bolivar 
soon  came  to  the  front  among  the  patriots,  having 
gained  some  important  victories  over  the  royalists,  but 
he,  too,  was  drawn  into  the  whirl  of  internecine  war. 
1815  arrived.  Napoleon  fell.  Spain,  freed  from 
dread  of  invasion,  prepared  to  "  pacify  " — that  is  to 
say,  to  overwhelm — her  revolted  colonies.  A  large 
army  of  veterans  arrived  from  the  Peninsula  under 
command  of  General  Pablo  Morillo  and  reconquered 


MODERN   HISTORY  35 

Venezuela  and  New  Granada  ;  the  severest  measures 
of  repression  were  resorted  to  ;  hundreds  and 
thousands  were  executed,  exiled,  impressed  into  the 
royalist  ranks,  or  left  to  suffer  or  die  in  prison. 

Here   and   there   in   Colombia   and   Venezuela   the 
revolutionists  held  firm  ;    the  brave  Uaneros,  the  most 
picturesque  and  romantic  of  the  patriots,  with  their 
ingenious   guerrilla   warfare,    were   not    readily    sub- 
dued :     in    the    Orinoco    delta,    a    mulatto,    General 
Piar,  maintained  a  stronghold,  and  in  other  scattered 
places  the  hopes  of  the  battlers  for  liberty  were  kept 
alive.       Aid  was  sought  abroad,   and  the  disbanded 
armies    of    Europe    supplied    adventurers    ready    to 
enlist.     English  and  Irish  soldiers  especially  flocked 
to  join  Bolivar,  the  only  leader  who  could  succeed  in 
uniting   the  conflicting    elements   among   the    revolu- 
tionists, and  in  whom  all  hope  soon  became  centred. 
In    1 819  he  accomplished  his  most  striking  achieve- 
ment.    Suddenly  crossing  the  inundated  llanos  during 
the  rainy  season  and  passing  over  the  paramos  of  the 
Andes,    despite   cold    and   hunger,    he   fell   upon   the 
advance-guards    of    the   surprised    royalists,    effected 
a    union    with    Santander,    and    utterly    routed    the 
Spaniards  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Boyaca  (August  7, 
1819).      This    was    the    turning    point    of    the    war. 
Three   days   later   Bolivar   entered   Bogota,    and   the 
independence  of   New  Granada  was   assured.       The 
Liberator  then  entered  upon  his  glorious  campaigns 
in  Venezuela  and  the  countries  to  the  south,  to  wrest 
half   a  continent   from   the   Spanish   yoke   and   share 
with     San     Martin     the     supreme    honours     of     the 
independence   of   South    America. i 

'  Professor  Hiram  Bingham,  of  Yale  University,  has  written  a  study 
of  the  battle  of  Boyaca  and  the  route  of  Bolivar's  army  in  journal 
of  an  Expedition  across  Venezuela  and  Columbia,  1906-1907  (New 
Haven,  1909). 

The  best  history  of  the  Revolution,  although  written  in  a  partisan 
spirit,  is  still  the  Historia  de  la  Revolucion  de  Colombia,  by  Jose 
Manual  Restrepo,  Bolivar's  secretary  (Paris,  1827  ;  Besan^on,  1858). 


36  COLOMBIA 

The  patriot  Congress  was  in  session  at  Angostura 
when  news  came  to  it  of  the  victory  of  Boyaca  and 
Bolivar's  entry  into  Bogota.  Its  previous  attitude 
of  censure  naturally  was  turned  into  the  most 
enthusiastic  praise  ;    the  title  of  Libert ador  was  con- 

In  English,  perhaps  the  best  account  is  to  be  found  in  Mitre's  The 
Emancipation    of   South    America,    condensed    tr.   by   W.    Pilling 
(London,  1893).     The  most  valuable  recent  contribution  in  English 
is  Petre's  Life  of  Bolivar  {London  and  N.Y.,  1911).     Among  impor- 
tant books  not  mentioned  in  Petre's  bibliography  or  recently  pub- 
lished dealing  with  Bolivar  or  the  war  in  Colombia,  are  :  Coleccidn  de 
documentos  relativos  a  la  vida  publica  del  libcrtador  (Caracas,  1826- 
33)  ;    Calvo  :    Annates   Historiqties   de  la  revolution    de  lAmerique 
laiine    (Paris,     1864-75)   [also   in    Spanish]  ;    Blanco   y   Azpurua: 
Documentos  para  la  historia  de  la  vida  publica  del  libertador  (Caracas, 
1875-7)  (14  vols,  were  published) ;  Captain  W.  T.  Adams  :  Journal 
of  Voyages  to  Margaritta  (Dublin,   1824) ;   [F.  Hall]  Present  State  of 
Colombia  (London,   1827)  ;  W.  B.  Stevenson  :  Twenty  Years'  Resi- 
dencciin  South  America  {London,   1825,  1828)  [also  Fr.  and  Germ, 
trans.]  ;  Recollections  of  a  Service  of  Three  Years  in  Venez.  and  Colombia, 
by  an  Officer  of  the  Colombian  Navy  (London,  1828)  ;  Documentos 
para  scrvir  a  la  historia  de  la  conspiracion  del  25  de  Seiiembre,  1828 
(Bogota,  1829)  ;  Proceso  seguido  al  general  Santander  (Bogota,  1831) ; 
Campaigns  and  Cruises  in  Venezuela  and  New  Grenada,  1817-1830 
(London,    1831)  ;  Kottenkampf  :  Der  unabhangigkeitskampf  der  Sp. 
Am.  colonien  (Stuttgart,  1838)  ;  Mosquera,  T.  C.  de  :  Vida  del  liber- 
tador {N.Y.,  1853) ;  Perez,  Felipe  :  Anales  de  la  Revolucion  (Bogota, 
1863)  ;  id.  :  Biografia  dcZea  (Bogota,  1873) ;  Lacroix  :  Raciocinos  del 
libertador  (Paris,  1869)  ;  id.  :    Diario  de  Bucaramanga  ;    Espinosa, 
J.  M. :  Memorias  de  un  abandonerado  (Bogota,  1876) ;    de   Rojas  : 
Simon  Bolivar  (Madrid,  1883)  ;  Samper,  J.  M. :  El  Libertador  (Buenos 
Aires,  1884) ;  Castahos  y  Montijano  :  Paginas  olvidadas  .  .  .  narra- 
cion  de  la  guerra  separatista  de  America  (Toledo,  1891) ;  Biblioteca  de 
Historia  Nacional  (Bogota,  v.d.) ;  Becker  :  "  La  Independencia  de 
America"  (in  Espana  Moderna,  1908,  vols.  229,   231,  232);  Rodri- 
guez Villa  :  Morillo  :  Estudio  biografico  documenfado  (Madrid,  1909- 
10);  Urrutia :  El  Ideal  Politico  del  libertador  {BogoiA,  igii);  Jules 
Mancini :    Bolivar  et   l' emancipation   des  colonies  cspagnoles   (Paris, 
1912) ;  Luis  A.  Cuervo  :  Bolivar  intimo  (Bogota,  1912)  ;  Villanueva  : 
Bolivar y  San  Martin  (Paris,  1912).    See  also  the  bibliographies  in 
Winsor's  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  The  Cambridge 
Modern    History,    and    Puxson  :     The    Independence  of   the    South 
American  Republics  (Phila.,  1903). 


MODERN   HISTORY  37 

ferred  upon  Bolivar,  and  the  assembly  became  readily 
pliant  to  his  will.  His  projects  for  a  union  between 
Venezuela  and  New  Granada  were  adopted,  the 
Republic  of  Colombia  organized  and  himself  elected 
President.  The  territory  of  the  republic  was  divided 
into  three  departments,  corresponding  to  the  present 
countries  of  Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Ecuador,  with 
capitals  respectively  at  Bogota,  Caracas,  and  Quito, 
each   department   in   charge  of  a  vice-president. 

The  Vice-President  at  Bogotd  was  Francisco  de 
Paula  Santander,  who  was  left  at  the  helm  whilst 
Bolivar  pursued  his  military  campaigns.  Santander, 
who  continued  to  be  the  dominant  figure  in 
Colombian  politics  until  his  death  in  1840,  was  of 
the  best  type  of  public  men  South  America  has 
produced.  Well  versed  in  politics  and  jurisprudence, 
he  was  a  constructive  statesman  who  relied  upon 
law,  not  force,  for  the  maintenance  of  government, 
amply  earning  the  title  that  has  been  bestowed  on 
him,  el  homhre  de  las  leyes — "  the  man  of  law."  He 
was  ever  a  sincere  patriot,  subordinating  his  personal 
ambition  to  his  country's  welfare,  and  his  public 
record  has  but  few  stains.  One  of  these  was  his 
tacit  approval  of  the  conspiracy  against  Bolivar, ^ 
upon  the  latter's  reassuming  dictatorial  power  in 
•Colombia  ;  on  this  occasion  (September  25,  1828) 
the  Liberator  narrowly  saved  his  life,  being  aided  by 
his  mistress  in  making  his  escape  from  a  window 
in  the  palace.  Another  blot  on  Santander's  career 
was  his  unduly  revengeful  treatment,  unmindful  of  his 
own  former  pardon,  of  conspirators  against  himself 
a  few  years  later.  Apart  from  these  acts,  his  life 
is  a  signal  example  of  courageous  devotion,  in  the 
face  of  great  obstacles,   to   lofty  principles. 

Santander  stood  against  Bolivar  as  the  foremost 
supporter  of  a  federal  form  of  governm.ent — a  con- 

'  Some  historians  deny  that  Santander  participated  at  all  in  the 
conspiracy.     Petre  sums  up  the  evidence. 


38  COLOMBIA 

federation  of  sovereign  States.  Bolivar  was  in  favour 
of  a  strongly  centralized  government,  and  was,  in 
fact,  suspected  of  harbouring  monarchical  tendencies. 
It  is  indisputable  that  at  one  time  he  did  desire  a  life 
tenure  as  dictator,  under  the  belief  that  his  own  strong 
hand  was  essential  to  the  development  of  the  nation. 

The  Angostura  assembly  had  convoked  a  general 
Congress  for  the  new  republic  to  meet  at  Rosario 
del  Cucuta  on  January  i,  1821.  After  consider- 
able delay  in  organizing,  work  was  at  last  got  under 
way  ;  a  Constitution  was  framed,  largely  along  the 
lines  of  Bolivar's  ideas,  and  a  number  of  laws  of 
prime  importance  passed.  The  Inquisition  was 
abolished,  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  begun, 
religious  toleration  enacted,  the  administration  and 
judiciary  organized.  It  was  while  the  Congress  was 
in  session  that  the  battle  of  Carabobo  Qune  24, 
1 821)  was  won,  assuring  the  sway  of  the  republic 
in  Venezuela.  Cartagena  and  other  lingering  strong- 
holds of  the  Spaniards  were  conquered,  and  soon 
after  these  successes  came  recognition  of  the 
independence  of  Colombia  by  foreign  Powers,  the 
United  States  being  the  first.  The  diplomacy  of 
Canning,  leading  up  to  the  Monroe  doctrine,  assured 
the  permanency  of  the  hard-earned  independence. 
The  struggle  continued  in  the  south,  in  Peru  and 
Bolivia,  but  Colombia  was  free  from  fear  of  Spanish 
aggression. 

La  Gran  Colombia  was  not  destined  to  long  life. 
Within  a  very  few  years  it  split  up  into  the  com- 
ponent parts — Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Ecuador — 
which  since  have  retained  their  distinctive  nation- 
alities. The  reunion  of  these  countries  under  one 
flag  has  ever  been  a  pious  wish  and  a  fruitful  theme 
for  orators  and  essayists,  but  with  little  prospect 
of  practical  realization.  In  addressing  the  Congress 
at  Cucuta,  Zea,  the  Vice-President,  in  his  inaugural 
address,    said  : 


MODERN    HISTORY  39 

"  United,  neither  the  empire  of  the  Assyrians,  the 
Medes  or  the  Persians,  the  Macedonian  or  the 
Roman  Empire  can  ever  be  compared  with  this 
colossal  republic  ;  but  none  of  the  three  departments 
of  Venezuela,  Cundinamarca,  or  Quito  can  in  the 
course  of  a  century  become  by  itself  alone  a  stable 
and  respectable  nation." 

However  fantastic  his  words  as  to  the  glory 
awaiting  the  union,  his  prophecy  as  to  the  fate  of 
the  shattered  members  has  been  too  well  fulfilled. 
The  llanero  General  Paez  was  the  leader  of  the 
separatist  party  in  Venezuela,  and  by  1830  he  had 
definitely  gained  his  ends,  and  the  Republic  of 
Venezuela  had  been  declared  ;  Ecuador  followed 
suit.  The  Peruvians,  too,  not  content  with  casting 
off  the  yoke  of  the  ambitious  Bolivar,  had  declared 
war  a  year  previously  against  Colombia,  but  were 
decisively  defeated  by  Sucre  at  the  battle  of  Tarqui 
(1829).  A  certain  rankling  remains  to  this  day  ; 
whenever,  as  has  frequently  happened,  boundary  ques- 
tions between  Colombia  and  Peru  stir  up  a  crisis  and 
threaten  armed  conflict,  this  old  war  is  remembered. 

The  year  following  the  split  with  Venezuela  and 
Ecuador,  the  very  name  Colombia  was  abandoned  : 
the  provinces  which  continued  to  recognize  the 
Bogota  Government  were  now  called  the  "  Re- 
public of  New  Granada,"  Santander  being  elected 
President  under  a  new  conservative  Constitution 
adopted  in  1831,  although  he  himself  is  deemed 
the  founder  of  the  Liberal  party.  A  period  com- 
paratively free  from  disturbance  continued  until  1858 
under  the  centralized  Government,  strengthened  by 
a  still  more  conservative  Constitution  passed  in  1843. 
The  country's  Presidents  were  nearly  all  men  of 
ability,  energy,  and  patriotism.  Of  these  the  most 
striking  figure  was  General  Tomas  Cipriano  de 
Mosquera  (1845-9) — the  most  remarkable  man  in 
Colombian     history    after    Bolivar    and     Santander. 


40  COLOMBIA 

Scion  of  a  noble  family,  which  claims  descent  from 
Charlemagne  and  kinship  with  the  Empress  Eugenie, 
he  was  one  of  four  brothers^  all  of  whom  attained 
distinction.  Soldier,  statesman,  author,  scientist,  his 
energy  was  no  less  remarkable  than  his  v^ersatility  ;  ' 
he  served  with  distinction  in  the  struggle  against 
Spain,  and  displayed  great  military  skill  in  the  civil 
wars  :  he  wrote  a  biography  of  Bolivar  and  several 
geographical  works  ;  and  he  is  the  man  of  the 
century  who  did  most  for  the  country's  development, 
fostering  science,  education,  and  a  host  of  public 
improvements,  and  maintaining  the  country's  credit 
and  finances  on  a  relatively  sound  footing. 

Mosquera,  originally  a  tolerant  Conservative,  later 
became  and  remained  the  chief  of  the  Liberal  party. 
As  such  he  led  a  successful  revolution,  becoming 
President  in  1863,  under  a  new  Constitution  adopted 
by  the  victors  at  Rio  Negro.  To  emphasize  the 
federal  system  of  government,  now  warmly  espoused 
(steps  towards  it  had  already  been  taken  in  1858) 
and  carried  to  absurd  extremes,  this  fundamental 
law  renamed  the  nation  "  the  United  States  of 
Colombia,"  which  appellation  was  retained  until 
1886,  when  the  present  title  of  the  Republic  of 
Colombia    was    assumed. 

The  Liberal  domination  continued  for  a  score  of 
years,  but  was  troubled  by  frequent  uprisings, 
generally  instigated  by  the  clergy,  who,  it  must  be 
admitted,  were  persecuted  to  a  fanatical  extreme. 
One  revolution  (1876-7),  of  short  duration  but 
sanguinary,   though   unsuccessful,    initiated   a   period 

'  His  character  and  career  bear  many  striking  resemblances  to 
those  of  Colonel  Roosevelt,  both  energetic,  versatile,  popular,  though 
intensely  hated  by  their  enemies,  egotistic,  dominating,  violent  of 
temper  and  outspoken  in  utterance,  but  the  North  American  suffers 
by  comparison  with  the  South  American  in  point  of  mental  capacity 
and  originality  and  sincerity.  To  point  a  moral  :  Mosquera  in  1867 
assumed  dictatorial  powers,  but  by  a  military  coup  d'etat,  executed 
by  his  own  friends,  was  ousted  and  exiled. 


MODERN    HISTORY  41 

of  transformation.  Dr.  Rafael  Nunez,  elected 
President  by  the  less  intransigeant  wing  of  his  party, 
gradually  went  over  to  the  Conservative  side.  After 
his  election  to  a  second  term,  not  consecutive,  the 
government  came  completely  into  the  hands  of  the 
Conservatives.  The  Liberals  provoked  a  revolu- 
tion (1885-6),  the  suppression  of  which  planted  their 
opponents  so  firmly  in  power  that  a  new  Constitu- 
tion, the  one  now  in  force,  abolishing  the  sovereignty 
of  the  states,  centralizing  power,  and  recognizing 
the  Church,  was  framed. 

The  presidential  term  was  fixed  at  six  years.  In 
1892,  Nuiiez  was  re-elected,  but  did  not  exercise 
the  duties  of  office  ;  now  feeble  in  health,  he  retired 
to  Cartagena,  and  several  Vice-Presidents  in  suc- 
cession, of  whom  the  most  notable  was  Dr.  Miguel 
Antonio  Caro,  were  the  active  heads  of  the  Govern- 
ment. The  Conservative  party  was,  however,  splitting 
up  into  factions,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  Liberals 
would  have  gradually  but  peaceably  regained  con- 
trol ;  abuses,  however,  which  they  deemed  intoler- 
able, made  them  impatient,  and  soon  after  the  election 
of  Sanclemente,  civil  war,  under  the  leadership  of 
another  remarkably  able  and  versatile  man.  General 
Rafael  Uribe-Uribe,  broke  out  (1899).  Sanclemente 
was  old  and  feeble  ;  ousted  from  power  by  a  faction 
of  his  own  party,  he  was  virtually  kept  a  prisoner 
at  his  country  residence  until  his  death.  The  Vice- 
President  Marroquin  vigorously  waged  war  against 
the  Liberals,  and  finally  triumphed.  The  struggle 
was  of  long  duration  ;  peace  was  not  officially  re- 
established till  1903.  Colombia  has  not  yet  wholly 
recovered  from  the  ravages  of  the  war  ;  in  addition 
to  th,e  loss  of  life  and  property,  the  country  became 
burdened  with  an  inflated  paper  currency,  an  incubus 
of  which  it  is  not  yet  rid,  its  credit  abroad  was  im- 
paired, and  the  revolution  was  indirectly  the  cause 
of  the  loss  of  Panama. 


42  COLOMBIA 

General  Rafael  Reyes,  who  had  attained  distinction 
as  an  explorer  and  power  as  the  chief  of  the  Govern- 
ment forces  during  the  revolution  of  1885,  was 
elected  to  succeed  Marroquin,  the  hopes  of  the 
country  being  centred  on  him.  Ever  since  his 
abdication  in  191  o,  there  has  been  bitter  criti- 
cism in  Colombia  of  Reyes,  but  the  future  his- 
torian, free  from  the  bias  of  partisanship,  will 
undoubtedly  recognize  much  good  in  his  five  years' 
administration.  Reyes  did  much  to  re-establish  the 
exhausted  nation's  credit  abroad,  procured  the 
development  of  roads  and  railroads  with  both  foreign 
and  domestic  capital,  kept  order,  allowed  business 
a  chance  to  grow,  and  maintained  on  the  whole  an 
enlightened  public  policy.  Reyes,  however,  like 
Bolivar  before  him,  believed  that  Colombia  could 
only  be  set  on  a  permanently  firm  footing  by  a  strong, 
almost  dictatorial,  hand  :  Diaz  of  Mexico,  a  close 
personal  friend,  was  his  ideal  ;  but  Reyes  is  a  man 
at  once  too  humane  and  too  enlightened  to  carry 
out  such  ruthless  measures  as  established  Diaz  on 
a  virtual  throne.  Nor  are  the  Colombian  people  so 
subservient  :  public  opinion  finally  rose  to  a  high 
pitch  against  alleged  "  dictatorship  "  ;  Reyes  gave 
away  before  it  and  left  the  country.  In  due  course 
and  by  regular  process  of  law,  the  present  incumbent. 
Dr.  Carlos  E.  Restrepo,  was  elected  President,  and 
has  provided  a  most  creditable  administration. 

The  last  ten  peaceful  years  of  Colombia's  history 
are   of  good  augury. 

The  main  subjects  of  political  controversy  during 
the  nation's  life,  it  will  have  been  noted,  have  been 
the  struggle  between  opposing  theories  of  Govern- 
ment, federation  versus  centralization,  and  the  atti- 
tude to  be  adopted  by  the  Government  towards  the 
Church.  All  sorts  of  questions,  many  of  them  not 
intrinsically  political  at  all,  have  been  collaterally  in- 
volved, and  the  very  names  adopted  by  the  parties — 


MODERN   HISTORY  43 

Liberal,  Conservative — have  tended  to  a  grouping 
of  other  subsidiary  ideas  under  the  main  ones.  The 
Liberals,  for  instance,  by  the  very  force  of  their  name, 
have  tended  to  herald  themselves  as  the  sole  pro- 
tectors of  individual  rights  and  liberties,  of  freedom 
of  speech  and  of  the  Press  :  adherents,  consequently, 
of  civil  marriage  and  of  divorce  :  opponents,  in  the 
early  days,  of  slavery  ;  to-day,  now  that  is  a  dead 
issue,  of  capital  punishment.  The  Conservatives,  up- 
holders of  an  established  State  Church — the  Catholic, 
of  course — and  of  the  control  by  that  Church  of 
education,  have  been  wont  to  brand  their  opponents 
as  godless  and  irreligious,  as  enemies  of  the  home 
and  of  the  Church — charges  wholly  unfounded  against 
the  rank  and  file,  though  naturally  free-thinkers  and 
Radicals  would  be  more  apt  to  gather  under  the 
banner  of  the  Liberal  party.  Party  feeling  has  often 
risen  to  the  most  bitter  pitch.  Fierce  hatred  has 
shown  itself  during  some  revolutions — notably  those 
of  1859  and  1876— almost  to  the  point  of  savagery. 
Revivals  of  this  bitter  partisan  spirit  are  occasionally 
seen  to-day,  but  on  the  whole  a  milder,  more  tolerant, 
and  juster  spirit  prevails  ;  progress  has  undoubtedly 
been  made,  and  the  leaders  of  all  parties  do  unite, 
not  infrequently,  for  the  common  good.  While  it 
would  be  rash  to  predict  that  revolutions  are  over — 
of  what  country  in  the  world  with  seething  economic 
problems  to  face  could  that  be  said? — it  can  be 
with  assurance  stated  that  the  days  of  chronic 
political  instability  in  Colombia  are  irrevocably  gone. 
Revolutions  caused  by  mere  desire  of  the  "  outs  " 
to  become  the  "  ins,"  or  by  the  ambitions  of  indi- 
vidual chiefs,  are  no  longer  possible  ;  revolutions, 
if  any  unhappily  are  to  come,  will  be  as  a  sole  means 
of  correcting  grave  abuses  or  defending  fundamental 
rights,  and  as  public  opinion  has  become  a  definite 
power — witness  the  termination  of  the  Reyes 
regime — it  is   unlikely   that   conditions   will   come   to 


44  COLOMBIA 

such  a  pass  as  to  justify  or  require  an  appeal  to  the 
last  resort.  The  long  duration  of  the  last  revolu- 
tion (1899-1903),  the  woeful  destruction  it  caused, 
and  the  enduring  evils  it  entailed,  have  taught  the 
Colombians  a  lesson  not  soon  to  be  forgotten,  and 
before  a  new  generation  assumes  control  Colombia 
will,  it  is  believed,  have  attained  such  material 
development,  with  its  concomitant  advantages,  that 
tranquillity  may  be  looked  forward  to  with  as  much 
assurance  as  in  Chile  and  Argentina  or  England  and 
the  United  States.  Petty  uprisings  will,  of  course, 
occur.  They  may  be  branded,  both  at  home  and 
abroad,  as  "  revolutions,"  but  they  will  be  trivial 
in  character,  less  of  a  menace,  and  less  destructive 
than  a  coal  strike  or  a  railroad  strike  in  Great  Britain 
or  the  States. 

I  must  correct  a  misconception  that  the  reader  may 
possibly  have  formed,  or  been  confirmed  in,  by  my 
use  just  now  of  the  term  "  chronic  political  insta- 
bility." Colombia  has  never  in  all  its  history  for  a 
long  period  of  time  been  in  such  a  condition  as  that 
which  has  devastated  some  other  Spanish  American 
countries  ;  there  has  been,  however,  chronic  fear  of 
revolution,  with  all  its  paralysis.  There  is  much 
misconception  as  to  the  number  of  real  revolutions 
in  its  history  ;  only  twice  has  the  "  legitimate  " 
succession  to  the  Presidency  been  upset — a  record 
unequalled  by  any  other  Spanish  American  country 
with  the  single  exception  of  Chile.  In  other  words, 
successful  revolutions  have  been  rare  :  the  established 
Government  has  nearly  always  succeeded  either  in 
suppressing  armed  revolt  or  in  securing  a  working 
compromise.  But  this  past  tendency  to  revolution 
is  worthy  of  study.  The  subject  cannot  be  dismissed 
with  the  contemptuous  generalities  that  the  average 
Englishman  or  American  is  apt  to  bestow.  There 
has  been  no  one  cause  for  revolutionism  ;  no  general 
formula?,    sometimes    put    forward,    as    to    inherent 


MODERN   HISTORY  46 

lawlessness,  incompatibility  of  races,  unfitness  for 
self-government  fostered  by  the  Spanish  colonial 
system,  etc.,  will  fit  the  case.  Inherent  lawless- 
ness we  have  shown  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter 
to  be  false — racial  antagonisms  have  played  but  a 
very  small  part  :  the  unripeness  for  self-government 
at  the  birth  of  the  nation  has  been  a  contributory 
cause  ;  but  the  truer  causes  have  been  manifold. 
Go  below  the  surface,  and  in  Colombia  as  in 
other  nations  economic  necessities  of  various  kinds 
and  the  human  surge  upwards  to  higher  levels  of  life, 
material  and  intellectual,  will  be  found  consciously 
or  subconsciously  at  work.  The  Irish  "  We  don't 
know  what  we  want,  but,  begorrah,  we're  bound 
to  get  it  "  is  not  as  unreasonable  as  it  may  sound  : 
so  the  ignorant  Colombian  peon  or  Indian  impressed 
into  a  revolutionary  army,  and  his  superficially  edu- 
cated, restlessly  excitable,  nervous  colonel  or  general, 
have  been  the  instruments  of  an  upward  progression. 
The  unrest  has  been  justified.  There  has  been  some- 
thing rotten  in  the  State — vast  rich  lands  lying  waste  ; 
the  lower  classes  neglected  ;  material  necessities, 
though  unfelt  because  unknown,  high  standards  of 
food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  wanting  ;  education  nil  ; 
the  politico  often  choosing  politics,  and  incidentally 
revolution,  as  the  only  means  of  livelihood,  having 
been  taught  no  other  ;  even  religious  cravings  often 
unsatisfied  ;  higher  intellectual  life  denied — all  these 
have  been  contributory  causes.  By  reason  of  lack 
of  education  of  the  masses,  and  for  the  classes  a 
misdirected  education — unpractical  and  often  super- 
ficial— there  has  not  been  learned  perseverance  and 
patience  to  correct  through  orderly  processes  of 
government.  Add  sectional  feeling,  the  regionism 
inherited  from  Spain — undissolved  because  of  lack 
of  facile  intercommunication — and  the  pot  is  ready 
to   boil. 

The  cure,  therefore,  for  revolutionism  is  obvious  : 


46  COLOMBIA 

material  prosperity  and  education.  It  is  now  at 
work.  With  foreign  capital  and  foreign  immigration, 
material  prosperity  will  come  speedily  :  without  them, 
or  either  of  them,  the  day  of  salvation  will  be 
delayed.  Immigration  is  needed,  not  so  much 
because  there  is  any  real  scarcity  in  the  ranks 
of  labour,  but  for  education  :  foreign  workers, 
especially  if  slmpatico,  can  better  teach  the  Colom- 
bians, who  are  ready  pupils,  to  be  workers. 
Improved  sanitary  conditions  will  come  with  the  ex- 
penditure of  money,  and  with  the  consequent  abolition 
of  malaria,  anaemia,  etc.,  many  misnamed  cases  of 
laziness  will  disappear.  Wealth  and  education  hand 
in  hand  will  lead  Colombia  from  the  brink  of  the 
chasm  to  the  highroad  of  peace  and  order. 


CHAPTER    IV 

DIPLOMATIC   RELATIONS 

Colombia's  diplomatic  history  has  had  two  import- 
ant phases — one  of  fleeting  glory  at  the  beginning 
of  her  life  as  an  independent  nation^  one  of  impotent 
humiliation,  in  recent  times,  at  the  hands  of  a 
stronger  Power.  Some  knowledge  of  these  is  neces- 
sary if  one  is  to  attain  a  sympathetic  understanding 
of  the  present-day  mind  of  her  thinking  population. 

For  a  brief  moment,  when  Bolivar  was  the  fore- 
most leader  in  South  America,  Colombia  held  a 
position  of  prestige  throughout  the  continent.  The 
Liberator  then  conceived  the  idea  of  a  closer  political 
union  among  the  American  nations,  and  with  that 
end  in  view  convoked  the  first  Pan-American  Con- 
gress. This  met  at  Panama  in  1826  ;  nothing  was 
accomplished,  but  the  ideas  then  advanced  and 
debated  have  borne  fruit. 

In  1889  James  G.  Blaine,  then  Secretary  of  State, 

realizing   the   tremendous   importance   to   the   United 

States    of    its    relations    to    the    Spanish    American 

countries,   revivified  Bolivar's  project,  and  organized 

the     second    of    those     Pan-American     Conferences, 

which    have     since    convened    with    frequency    and 

regularity.     The  policy  of  the  United  States  Foreign 

Office  has  been  to  promote  closer  relations  with  the 

Latin   American    countries,    for    the    twofold    purpose 

of    fostering    its    own    trade    and    commerce    and    of 

preserving  the   supremacy  of   its   own   power  in  the 

47 


48  COLOMBIA 

New  World  by  confining  the  European  nations  to 
their  present  colonies.  It  has  systematically  instilled 
the  doctrine  of  Pan -Americanism  —  sincerely,  no 
doubt,  in  spite  of  assertions  to  the  contrary.  Never- 
theless, there  has  grown  up  a  feeling  in  many 
Spanish  American  quarters  that  Pan -Americanism 
seen  through  Yankee  eyes  means,  not  "  America 
for  the  Americans,"  but  "  America  for  the  North 
Americans."  As  a  consequence,  the  ideas  sought 
to  be  developed  by  Bolivar  at  the  Panama  Con- 
gress have  been  kept  alive,  but  driven  to  a  different 
goal.  The  main  object  of  that  remarkable  gathering 
was  to  form  a  defensive  alliance  against  Spain,  and 
that  was  why,  in  spite  of  popular  enthusiasm,  opposi- 
tion was  developed  in  the  United  States,  mindful  of  its 
traditional  rule  against  entangling  alliances,  to  partici- 
pating in  the  Congress.  To-day  an  alliance  among 
the  Spanish  American  countries  is  again  agitated,  no 
longer  against  Spain  or  any  other  European  Power, 
but  against  the  United  States,  the  "  Colossus  of  the 
North."  Fear  of  Yankee  aggression,  of  Yankee 
invasion  and  conquest,  is  a  dominant  note  in  this 
movement  ;  and  it  is  because  Colombia,  of  all  the 
Spanish  American  countries,  is  the  one  most  affected 
with  this  fear,  that  I  have  deemed  it  necessary  to 
introduce  the  subject  briefly  in  these  pages.  A 
discussion  of  the  larger  questions  arising  from  the 
relations  of  the  United  States  to  the  Spanish 
American  countries  in  general,  and,  in  particular, 
of  the  Monroe  doctrine  and  its  recently  expounded 
corollaries,  of  the  international  aspects  of  the  Panama 
Canal,i  of  the  position  of  the  United  States  in  the 
Caribbean,  and  of  intervention,  while  tempting,  would 
lead  us  too  far  afield.  I  shall  accordingly  confine 
my   remarks   strictly   to   Colombia. 

Even  in  this  enlightened  age  every  nation  seems 

'  See  the  admirable  study  by  Harmodio  Arias,  Esq.  :  The  Panama 
Ca;m/ (London,  191 1). 


SIMOX    BOLIVAK. 


To  face  p. 


DIPLOMATIC   RELATIONS  49 

to  have  a  bugaboo  of  an  impending  foreign  enemy 
— England,  Germany  ;  the  United  States,  Japan  ;  and 
so  forth.       So  Colombians  dread  a  Yankee  attempt 
sooner   or   later   to   overpower   South   America,    and 
believe  their   land   to   be   the   outpost  which   will  be 
first    attacked.      They    have    already    felt    the    talon 
of  the  Eagle  ;    they  have  a  hysterical  dread  that  the 
voracious    bird   will   again    swoop    down    upon   their 
country.      Hysterical   is   the   only   word.      Suspicion 
of  the  designs  of  the  American  Government  is  carried 
to   absurd   limits  :     innocent    provisions   for   coaling 
rights   in   a   proposed  treaty,   or  steps   by  American 
companies   to   acquire   tracts   of   land   for  timber  or 
mining    in    certain    sections,    or    purely    commercial 
railroad  or  banking  projects,  are  misconstrued  to  be 
an     opening     wedge  ;     even     prospecting     American 
engineers  have  been  suspected  of  being  secret  spies. 
An4    the  -  Americans    have    only     themselves     to 
blame  I      Ever   since   the   annexation   of   Texas   and 
the   Mexican   War   there   has   been   a   certain   latent 
fear  of  Yankee  aggression  among  the  Latin  American 
peoples,  and  a  certain  dislike  of  the  Gringoes.     The 
events   of    1903,    the    ruthless    seizure    by    President 
Roosevelt  of   the  coveted   Panama   Canal   strip,   and 
Colombia's   humiliation   at   having   her   protests   and 
demands  for  redress  ignored,  have  carried  this  fear 
and  this  dislike  to  a  high  pitch. 

There  is  nothing  new  that  can  be  said  on  the 
subject  ;  but  in  spite  of  the  lapse  of  so  many  years, 
the  unsettled  "  Panama  question  "  is  still  a  burning 
one  in  Colombia.  This  must  be  my  justification  for 
repeating  what  to  many  a  reader  must  be  an  oft- 
told  tale,  for  nothing  else  has  brought  Colombia  so 
much  into  the  public  light. 

The  Spanish-American  War  redoubled  the  eager- 
ness, and  spurred  the  diplomatic  efi'orts  of  the  United 
States  for  an  interoceanic  canal.  After  long-pro- 
tracted  negotiations    a    treaty   was   entered    into    in 

6 


50  COLOMBIA 

Washington  between  John  Hay,  Secretary  of  State, 
and  the  Colombian  charg6  d'affaires,  Tomas  Herran, 
by  which  the  United  States  was  to  acquire  the  right 
to  build  the  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

The  treaty  was  ratified  by  the  United  States 
Senate,  and  then  needed  only  confirmation  by  the 
Colombian  Congress.  Considerable  opposition  to  it 
was,  however,  aroused,  and  it  was  finally  rejected, 
this  result  being  contributed  to  by  certain  tactless 
threats  conveyed  in  a  still  more  tactless  manner  by 
the  American  charge  d'affaires  in  Bogotd,  This 
opposition  was  lamentably  shortsighted,  but  for  the 
most  part  sincere  and  honest,  and  the  rejection  of 
the  treaty,  even  if  not  the  duty  of  the  Senate  under 
the  Constitution,  was  incontrovertibly  within  its  legal 
rights  under  any  aspect  of  international  law. 

A  revolution,  as  was  expected,  broke  out  soon 
after  in  Panama,  fostered  largely  by  foreigners,  con- 
spicuous among  whom  were  the  representatives  of 
the  French  Canal  Company  and  its  subsidiary,  the 
Panama  Railroad  Company.  The  connivance  of  the 
United  States  Government  has  been  charged,  but 
although  there  were  suspicious  circumstances,  the 
charge  has  not  been  absolutely  proven.  Panama 
proclaimed  its  independence  on  November  3,  1903. 
Colombia  was  prevented  by  United  States  marines 
and  by  the  express  declarations  of  President 
Roosevelt's  Government  from  making  any  attempt 
at  suppressing  the  revolution  and  maintaining  the 
revolted  province  in  her  allegiance.  A  few  days 
later  the  United  States  recognized  the  independence 
of  the  new  republic,  received  Philippe  Bunau-Varila, 
a  Frenchman,  the  leading  advocate  for  years  of  the 
Panama  route  and  one  of  the  chief  instigators  of 
the  revolution,  as  minister  plenipotentiary,  and  on 
November  i8th  signqd  a  treaty  with  him  acquiring 
the  canal  zone  and  the  right  to  build  the  canal.  The 
contract   previously   entered   into   with   the   Receiver 


DIPLOMATIC   RELATIONS  51 

of    the    French    Panama    Canal    Company    for    the 
transfer  of  its  rights  was  then  consummated. 

Colombia  protested,  and  has  repeatedly  protested, 
but  in  vain.  The  violation  of  the  treaty  of  1846, 
whereby  the  United  States  guaranteed  the  sovereignty 
of  New  Granada  over  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  the 
flouting  of  the  ordinary  rules  of  international  law 
in  recognizing  the  independence  of  Panama  within 
a  few  days  of  its  declaration,  the  prevention  by 
American  marines  of  all  attempts  on  the  part  of  the 
Colombian  Government  to  reassert  its  authority,  were 
affronts  of  a  nature  which  could  not  have  been  dared 
against  a  strong  nation.  Colombia,  a  weak  Power, 
had  not  alone  to  submit,  but  was  forced  to  see  its 
humiliation  increased  by  a  peremptory  refusal  to 
treat  with  its  envoys  or  to  submit  the  pending 
questions   to   arbitration. 

The  United  States  has  been  almost  blind  to  the 
disastrous  consequences  to  itself,  both  political  and 
commercial,  of  the  act  of  gross  injustice  that  was 
committed,  and  of  the  policy  of  indifference  it  has 
since  pursued.  It  is  not  Colombia  alone  that  has 
been  affected  ;  the  shock  of  the  taking  of  Panama 
was  felt  throughout  Spanish  America  :  a  quiver  of 
indignation  ran  through  the  Southern  continent, 
causing  spasmodic  outbursts  of  anti-American  feeling 
which  have  proved  detrimental  to  the  best  commercial 
interests  of  the  United  States  and  favourable  to 
European  trade,  and  which  have  hampered  American 
diplomacy.  As  we  have  seen,  there  is  a  well- 
defined  movement  throughout  South  America  looking 
towards  a  union  for  protection  against  the  United 
States. 

But  such  a  movement  seems  impracticable,  and  is 
impeded  by  local  dissensions  and  by  the  jealousy 
of  the  sister  nations.  Unfriendly  relations  with 
adjoining  States  are  the  rule  rather  than  the  excep- 
tion.    So  far  as  Colombia  is  concerned,  her  troubles 


52  COLOMBIA 

with  her  neighbours  are  chiefly  due  to  boundary 
conflicts,  of  which  the  most  troublesome  at  the 
present  time  is  that  with  Peru. 

These  boundary  questions  date  back  to  the  time 
of  the  Independence.  It  was  comparatively  simple 
at  that  time  for  the  nations  to  agree  that  the  principle 
of  the  Uti  possidetis  of  1 8 1  o  should  serve  as  the 
solution  to  determine  frontiers — that  the  territorial 
limits  of  the  independent  nations  should  be  those  of 
the  Spanish  colonies  which  preceded  them.  The 
principle,  embodied  in  many  of  the  Constitutions 
and  recognized  in  South  American  diplomacy,  was 
easy  to  formulate.  Its  application  was  difficult  in 
the  extreme.  The  boundaries  of  the  Spanish  colonies 
had  never  been  laid  down  with  precision  :  the  grants 
from  the  crown  were  often  vague  :  conflicts  of 
jurisdiction  had  been  frequent  :  the  vast  inland 
regions  were  almost  wholly  unknown,  and  their 
geography  often  conjectural.  And  for  one  reason 
and  another  these  boundary  questions  have  dragged 
on,  unsettled,  for  a  century. 

The  arbitral  award  of  the  King  of  Spain,  rendered 
in  1 891,  should  have  settled  the  boundary  dispute 
with  Venezuela,  but  it  has  not  been  put  into  execu- 
tion, and  minor  disputes  have  arisen  as  to  its 
interpretation.  Moreover,  the  problem  has  been 
complicated  by  the  restrictions  placed  by  Venezuela 
against  Colombian  trade  on  the  navigable  rivers 
of  the  Orinoco  and  Lake  Maracaibo  watersheds. 
The  questions  are  still  pending,  a  thorn  in  the  flesh. 
During  the  supremacy  of  Castro  in  Venezuela  a 
solution  seemed  well-nigh  impossible,  but  at  the 
present  time  both  Governments  are  showing  a  better 
spirit,  and  an  early  determination  can  be  looked 
forward  to. 

With  Peru  the  outlook  is  not  so  favourable.  The 
contending  nations  have  never  been  able  to  agree 
upon  an  arbitration  treaty,  though  many  have  been 


DIPLOMATIC   RELATIONS  53 

drafted.'  Colombia's  pretensions  extend  to  the 
Amazon,  but  Peru  has  actually  exercised  unhindered 
jurisdiction  north  of  the  Amazon  for  a  long  course 
of  years  :  her  great  river-port,  Iquitos,  is  situated 
on  the  north  shore  of  that  majestic  river,  and  its 
traders  have  found  in  the  richi  rubber  forests  an 
incentive  to  a  gradual  northward  aggression  favoured 
by  the  Peruvian  Government.  A  few  years  ago 
a  conflict  on  the  Putumayo  was  narrowly  avoided 
by  a  modus  vivendi  agreement  (1905),  which 
recognized  that  river  as  the  provisional  boundary. 
This  agreement  was  later  denounced  ;  the  Iquitos 
rubber  traders  pushed  steadily  north,  subjugating 
Indians  and  massacring  Colombian  traders  ;  in  191 1 
a  Colombian  garrison  at  La  Pedrera,  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Caqueta,  the  next  great  tributary  of 
the  Amazon,  was  attacked  by  Peruvian  troops,  and 
after  a  heroic  resistance  was  compelled  to  evacuate. 
A  war  fever  was  aroused  throughout  Colombia, 
martial  zeal  rose  to  a  high  pitchy  but  the  diplomats 
of  both  countries  succeeded  in  .averting  such  a 
disaster,  Peru  surrendering  La  Pedrera. 

Ecuador  claims  the  same  disputed  territory,  but 
there  is  no  such  animosity  between  h^r  and  Colombia 
as  between  the  latter  and  Peru.  On  the  contrary, 
the  Colombians  and  Ecuadorians  feel  themselves 
brothers-in-arms  against  a  common  foe  whom  they 
must  repel  by  law  or  war,  confident,  more  or  less, 
that  as  between  themselves  th.ey  will  subsequently 
succeed    in    making   an    equitable    division .2      It    is 

'  A  convention  signed  September  12,  1905,  failed  of  ratification. 

'  A  definite  boundaries  treaty  between  Colombia  and  Ecuador 
was  signed  May  24,  1908,  completed  by  a  treaty  of  July  21st,  same 
year  :  these  have  not  yet  been  ratified. 

An  authoritative  source  of  information  in  regard  to  Colombian 
boundary  questions,  up  to  the  date  of  its  publication,  with  valuable 
bibliographies,  is  A.  J.  Uribe  :  Anales  Diplomaticos  de  Colombia 
(2  vols.,  Bogota,  1900-1).  For  the  negotiations  since  that  date,  nego- 
tiations which  even  one  of  the  foremost  South  American  diplomats 


54  COLOMBIA 

more  than  likely  that  all  these  matters  involved 
between  the  various  countries  will  be  decided  in  the 
course  of  the  next  few  years  by  arbitration,  sub- 
mitted either  voluntarily  or  through  moral  pressure 
exercised  by  other  Powers,  since  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that,  however  lamentable  their  internal 
condition  at  times,  the  South  American  nations  have 
taught  many  a  useful  lesson  to  the  more  "  civilized  " 
Europeans  in   the   field  of   international   arbitration. 

If  the  writer  can  be  pardoned  for  venturing  on  a 
prophecy,  the  eventual  boundary  between  Colombia 
and  Peru  will  be  the  Putumayo  River,  with,  possibly, 
a  deviation  to  the  north  in  the  latter's  favour,  to 
protect  some  of  her  colonists  on  tributary  rivers 
in  its  lower  course  (the  source  of  the  river  is  un- 
questionably Colombian).  Peru  a  few  years  ago — 
I  had  it  on  the  authority  at  the  time  of  one  of  her 
distinguished  diplomats  —  would  have  been  well 
satisfied  to  have  that  river  fixed  as  the  definite 
boundary. 

A  common  antagonism  to  Peru  has  allied  Chile 
and  Colombia  ;  their  relations  are  most  cordial. 
As  early  as  1880  a  permanent  and  absolute  general 
treaty  of  arbitration  was  signed  by  the  two  nations, 
and  Chilean  officers  have  been  at  work  in  recent 
years  in  training  and  reorganizing  the  Colombian 
army . 

With  the  other  Spanish  American  nations  not 
already  mentioned,  Colombia's  diplomatic  relations 
are  unimportant— in  fact,  practically  nil.  Nor  does 
her  international  intercourse  with  the  rest  of  the 
world    present    anything    of    special    interest.        The 

calls  "  Trcs  difficiles  a  saisir"  (Alvarez  :  Droit  international  American, 
Paris,  1910),  the  yearly  publications  and  special  reports  of  the 
various  Foreign  Offices  must  be  consulted.  The  controversial 
literature,  which  is  abundant,  is  apt  to  be  misleading.  Exception 
must  be  made  of  the  recently  published  book  by  General  Rafael 
Uribe-Uribe. 


DIPLOMATIC   RELATIONS  55 

European  nations  have  occasionally  pressed  claims 
of  their  nationals  for  injuries  to  person  or  property, 
but  all  have  been  satisfactorily  settled  by  direct 
diplomacy  or  arbitration, i  Foreigners  have  had  but 
little  cause  for  complaint  in  Colombia,  unlike  some 
other  South  American  countries  :  their  lives  and 
their  property  have  been  secure  even  during  revolu- 
tions ;  in  fact,  during  the  progress  of  a  revolution 
they  have  often  been  placed,  as  far  as  money-making 
is  concerned,  in  a  position  far  more  advantageous 
than  the  native. 

Worthy  of  mention  is  Colombia's  friendly  feeling 
for  Germany  and  for  Japan,  due  to  a  mistaken  notion 
that  these  nations  are  inimical  to  the  United  States, 
which  she  has  come  to  regard  as  her  worst  enemy  ; 
but  any  alliance  with  either  is  extremely  unlikely. 
It  has,  however,  been  suggested  that  one  means  by 
which  the  United  States  could  compensate  Colombia 
for  her  Panama  loss,  without  the  necessity  of  con- 
fessing wrongdoing,  would  be  by  paying  Colombia  a 
substantial  sum  in  consideration  of  an  engagement 
not  to  permit  the  acquisition  of  any  seaport,  coaling 
rights,  or  canal  by  any  foreign  Power. 

Colombia  has  suffered  somewhat  from  the  want 
of  an  established  and  organized  diplomatic  and 
consular  service.  Appointments  to  foreign  posts  are 
largely  due  to  friendship,  nepotism,  or  political 
expediency — to  reward  an  ally  or  remove  a  foe. 
True,  able  lawyers  and  men  who  by  birth  and 
social  position  or  by  experience  in  foreign  countries 
are  well-equipped  for  a  diplomatic  life  often  credit- 

•  Of  recent  cases,  the  most  important  was  that  of  Cerruti,  an 
Italian  subject,  whose  property  was  confiscated  for  alleged  com- 
plicity in  the  revolution  of  1885.  It  presented  many  points  of 
interest  to  the  international  lawyer,  and  was  decided  by  President 
Cleveland  as  arbitrator,  in  1897,  in  Cerruti's  favour.  Some  minor 
questions  left  pending  by  his  decision  were  not  finally  settled 
till  191 1. 


66  COLOMBIA 

ably  fill  positions  abroad,  but  their  tenure  of  office 
is  apt  to  be  short-lived  ;  naturally  the  ablest  men 
are  the  most  ambitious,  and  ever  ready  to  shift 
from  duty  at  a  foreign  Court  to  the  temptation  of 
political  leadership  at  home.  At  the  present  time 
Colombia  accredits  ministers  to  England,  France, 
and  Germany,  Spain,  the  Holy  See,  the  United 
States,  Venezuela,  Ecuador,  and  to  Chile,  Peru,  and 
Brazil  combined  ;  appointments  ad  honorem  are 
frequently  made  to  other  countries.  Paid  consuls 
are  also  maintained  at  London,  Liverpool,  Paris, 
Antwerp,  St.  Nazare,  Hamburg,  New  York, 
Guayaquil,  San  Francisco,  Curagoa.  One  commend- 
able feature  of  her  foreign  service,  which  would 
be  still  more  commendable  if  it  were  not  so  frequently 
exercised  as  a  pure  act  of  favouritism  and  not  as  a 
reward  of  merit,  is  the  sending  of  young  men  as 
nominal  attaches  to  the  legations  and  consulates 
for  the  purpose  of  pursuing  their  studies  abroad. 
While  not  all  resist  the  temptations  of  the  gay  or 
idle  life  to  which  they  are  exposed,  the  study  at 
close  range  of  the  social  and  governmental  institu- 
tions of  nations  more  advanced  than  their  own  is 
of  distinct  service  to  their  country.  For  this  reason, 
as  well  as  because  a  training  in  foreign  service  is 
furnished,  this  is  an  enlightened  form  of  scholarship 
which  should  be  encouraged,  though  with  care  that 
it  be  based  purely  on  a  merit  system. 


CHAPTER    V 

GOVERNMENT   AND   LAW 

The  early  Constitutions  of  Colombia,  like  those  of 
so  many  others  of  the  South  American  countries, 
were  modelled  on  that  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  outer  structure  of  the  Constitution  of  to-day, 
in  spite  of  the  casting  aside  of  the  doctrine  of 
state  sovereignty  and  the  adoption  of  the  French 
centralized  system,  bears  many  points  of  resemblance 
to  the  fundamental  charter  of  the  North  American 
nation. 

The  United  States  Constitution  was  the  result  of 
a  natural  evolution,  a  product  of  the  brains  of  men 
steeped  in  the  common  law,  learned  in  their  Coke 
and  their  Blackstone,  jealous  of  their  hereditary 
rights  and  liberties  ;  while  adopting  new  external 
forms,  its  inner  spirit  was  essentially  a  common  law 
spirit  :  almost  every  phrase  was  pregnant  with  his- 
torical meaning,  engendered  by  an  ancestry  of 
ancient  statutes  and  decisions. 

It  was  obviously  a  mistake  to  attempt  to  graft 
such  an  alien  institution  on  a  people  bred  in  the 
Spanish  civil  law,  instead  of  revitalizing  the  exist- 
ing Spanish  institutions  and  breathing  into  them — no 
easy,  yet  no  impossible  task — the  modern  spirit  of 
liberty.  The  consequence  has  been  that  the  Colom- 
bians, a  few  exceptions  apart,  have  never  really 
understood,    do    not    to-day    understand,    their    own 

57 


68  COLOMBIA 

Constitution,  which  is  a  translation  wherein  words 
and  phrases  have  lost  much  of  their  historic  signi- 
ficance and  in  which  the  precious  safeguards  of 
individual  right  and  the  admirable  system  of  checks 
and  balances  seem  to  have  been  entirely  lost.  No 
vast  body  of  constitutional  law  has  been  built  up  : 
the  Constitution  has  no  vital  effect  upon  the  nation's 
life  or  laws  :  inner  spirit  it  has  none  ;  and  though 
there  is  much  discussion  over  it,  and  to-day  all 
political  parties  proclaim  themselves  "  constitutional," 
that  is,  adherents  in  the  main  of  the  existing  Constitu- 
tion,' yet  a  reading  of  it  furnished  us  surprisingly 
little  assistance  in  arriving  at  any  complete  under- 
standing of  the  actual  workings  of  the  Government. 
The  Constitution  contains  the  customary  division 
of  all  governmental  power  into  the  Executive,  the 
Legislative,  and  the  Judicial.  The  Executive  has 
always  vastly  overshadowed  the  others,  and  even 
to-day,  under  a  normal  regime,  does  so— not  the 
President  alone,  but  the  ensemble  of  the  Executive 
departments,  seven  in  number  :  State  or  Govern- 
ment, Foreign  Relations,  Hacienda  or  Exchequer  (in 
charge  of  Government  revenues).  Treasury  (in 
charge  of  disbursements).  War,  Public  Works,  and 
Education.  The  Ministers  at  the  head  of  these 
departments  are  appointed  by  the  President  and 
freely  removable  by  him,  but  are  responsible  to  the 
Legislature,  in  whose  deliberations  they  participate. 
The  amount  of  public  business  being  relatively  small, 
the  President  can  and  does  actually  keep  in  touch 
with  every  department  :    frequent  shifts  and  changes 

'  Adopted  in  1886  ;  a  translation  by  Professor  Bernard  Moses  is 
to  be  found  in  Foreign  Constitutions,  comp.  by  George  A.  Glynn 
(Albany,  N.Y.,  1894),  reprinted  from  Am.  Acad,  of  Pol.  and  Soc.  Sci. 
(Philadelphia,  1893);  and  also  in  American  Constitutions,  by  Jose 
Ignacio  Rodriguez  (Washington,  D.C.,  1905-7).  Several  important 
amendments  were  adopted,  however,  in  igio — not  included  in 
either  of  these  books.     For  a  translation  of  these  see  Appendix  I. 


#« 


PKESIDEXT    RESTREPO    AND    HIS   CABINET,    I912. 

(i)  Sr.  Dr.  Carlos  E.  Restrepo.  President  ;  (2)  Sr.  Dr.  Carlos  Cuervo  Marquez,  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction  :  (3)  Sr.  Dr.  Jose  Manuel  .Arango,  Minister  of  War  :  (4)  Sr.  Dr.  Francisco  Restrepo  Plata. 
Minister  of  Hacienda  :  (5)  Sr.  Dr.  Pedro  Si.  Carrefio,  Minister  of  Government  ;  (6)  Sr.  Dr.  Jose  5Ia. 
Gonzalez  Valencia,  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  ;  (7)  Sr.  Dr.  Simon  .\raujo,  Minister  of  Public  Works  ; 
(8)  Sr.  Dr.  Carlos  X.  Rosales,  Minister  of  the  Treasury. 


To  face  p.  58. 


GOVERNMENT   AND   LAW  59 

in  the  ministry  are  the  rule  in  practice,  and  rarely 
is  a  minister  in  office  long  enough  to  build  up  his 
department  or  carry  out  his  own  policies.  The  Presi- 
dent himself,  however,  is  elected  by  direct  popular 
vote  for  a  term  of  four  years,'  but  is  not  eligible 
for  consecutive  re-election. 

The  President  likewise  appoints  and  can  freely 
remove  the  governors  of  the  departments,  who,  in 
their  turn,  designate  and  control  the  prefects  of  the 
provinces  and  the  alcaldes  of  the  municipalities. 
These  various  officers,  all  mediately  or  directly  under 
the  thumb  of  the  President,  are  the  local  govern- 
ment. The  only  measure  of  home  rule  is  to  be  found 
in  the  limited  powers  of  the  departmental  assemblies 
and  the  consejos  manlcipales  [municipal  boards], 
both  elected  by  popular  vote  :  the  latter,  although 
the  name  has  been  adopted  from  the  French  "  conseil 
municipal,"  are,  in  reality,  typical  Spanish  institutions, 
lineal  descendants  of  the  ayuntamientos.  The 
ayuntamiento  in  Spain  was  not  so  much  a  local 
territorial  institution  adhering  to  the  land  as  an  asso- 
ciation or  organization  of  the  individual  members  or 
families  of  the  community  ;  if  they  moved,  an 
ayuntamiento  moved  with  them  :  much  as  the 
Englishman  carried  his  common  law  with  him 
wherever  he  went,  so  did  the  Spaniard  carry  his 
ayuntamiento.  Rights  clustered  around  the  ayunta- 
miento; representation  in  the  Parliament  or  Cortes 
had  been  obtained  in  Spain  earlier  than  in  any  other 
European  country  :  there  were  corporate  privileges 
and  liberties  which  even  the  Kinig  himself  could  not 
attack,  though  he  claimed  absolute  power.  Although 
the  functions  of  the  ayuntamiento,  transported  to 
the  colonies,  were  weakened  by  disuse,  it  yet  retained 

'  There  is  no  Vice-President,  but  the  two  houses  of  Congress 
meeting  jointly  elect  each  year  two  designated  successors,  first  and 
second  Designado  respectively,  to  act  in  case  there  should  be  a 
vacancy  in  the  Presidency. 


60  COLOMBIA 

some  of  its  local  power  and  a  measure  of  independ- 
ence. The  great  mistake  made  by  the  framers  of 
Colombia's  early  Constitutions,  in  the  writer's  opinion, 
was  in  not  taking  such  a  thoroughly  Spanish  institu- 
tion as  the  ayuntamiento  as  the  unit  or  foundation 
upon  which  to  base  their  government,  instead  of 
hearkening  after  strange  gods.  Perhaps  it  is  not 
yet    too    late. 

The  consejeros,  or  town  councillors,  are  generally 
men  of  standing  in  the  community — merchants, 
lawyers,  doctors,  hacendados,  are  usually  the  in- 
cumbents, with  but  a  comparatively  small  sprinkling 
of  professional  politicians.  The  proletariat  is  not 
represented  ;  no  class  struggle  has  yet  begun  in 
Colombia,  nor  is  one  in  sight,  though  in  one  or  two 
of  the  largest  cities  there  are  political  unions  of 
"  obreros,"  composed,  however,  of  artisans  rather 
than  labourers. 

The  consejos  show  themselves  well  versed  in  self- 
government,  and  on  the  whole,  within  their  un- 
fortunately very  restricted  powers,  do  fairly  well. 
The  same  can  hardly  be  said  of  all  the  alcaldes  and 
prefects,  generally  professional  politicians  and 
adherents  of  the  Government,  who  are  apt  to  be 
somewhat  arbitrary  and  to  exercise  their  power  too 
much  on  behalf  of  their  political  and  personal 
favourites  ;  the  ruling  impression  seems  to  be  that 
the  rank  and  file  are  not  above  accepting  douceurs; 
but  while  moral  standards  are  not  as  high  as  might 
be  desired,  there  is  no  such  general  corruption  as 
foreigners  are  apt  to  imagine.  The  alcalde,  whose 
functions  are  of  a  very  varied  nature,  is  a  particularly 
interesting  and  picturesque  personality  in  the  smaller 
communities.  He  does  not,  it  is  true,  sit  out  of  doors 
dispensing  justice  in  the  manner  depicted  in  so  many 
genre  paintings  of  Spain  ;  but  his  shaded  office, 
likely  as  not  with  large  doors  swinging  right  out  on 
the  street,  and  in  cool  contrast  to  the  glaring  heat 


GOVERNMENT   AND   LAW  61 

out    of   doors,    is   almost   as    picturesque  ;     there    he 
will  sit  at  his   desk,   a  large   plain  table,   invariably 
accompanied     by     the    secretary,     who     is     leisurely 
busy  writing  out  minutes   or   diligenclas ;    only    two 
or  three  other  chairs  in  the  room,   several  loungers 
standing  about  puffing  at  cigars  or  cigarettes  ;    easy 
of  access  when  in,  though  he  will  frequently  arrive 
late,   shut  up  shop  for  a  long  midday  period,   close 
early,  and  be  not  seldom  absent  from  town  either  on 
his  own  business  or  that  of  his  office  :    he  may  have 
to  take  long  trips  to  give  possession  of  mines  or  of 
public  lands,  or,  in  the  exercise  of  police  duties  or 
quasi-judicial  functions,  to  view  fences  or  boundaries 
or  watercourses  as  to  which  neighbouring  landowners 
are   in   dispute,   or  generally    "  to   keep   the   peace." 
These  and  a  number  of  other  matters  which  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  countries  would  be  left  to  the  courts,  such  as 
deciding  as  to  the  infringement  of  municipal  ordin- 
ances and  imposing  fines  or  even  imprisonment,  are 
passed  upon  administratively  by  the  alcalde.     From 
his  decisions  there  may  be  appeals  to  the  prefect  or 
to  the  governor,  and  finally  to  the  National  Govern- 
ment  at   Bogota,   and  in   constitutional  cases   to  the 
courts. 

The  prefect  rules  over  a  larger  territory — the 
province — and  the  governor  over  several  provinces 
united  as  a  department.  At  the  present  writing  there 
are  fifteen  departments  with  capitals  and  provinces, 
as  shown  on  pp.  62  and  63. 

The  departments  vary  greatly,  not  alone  in  popula- 
tion and  area,  but  also  in  resources.  The  revenues 
of  none  are  adequate  to  proper  administration,  and 
the  budgets  of  some  strike  us  as  being  ridiculously 
small.  The  incomes  of  the  departments  are  raised 
by  a  number  of  makeshift  devices,  no  scientific  study 
of  the  problems  of  taxation  or  even  attempt  at  it 
having  ever  been  made,  as  far  as  I  am  aware,  in 
Colombia.      The   National   Government  is   not   badly 


62 


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64  COLOMBIA 

off,  deriving  its  principal  revenue  from  custom  duties 
and  additional  income  of  considerable  moment  from 
mines,  stamped  paper,  recording  taxes,  etc.  ;  but  the 
departments  and  municipalities  (a  few  large  cities 
with  special  sources  of  revenue  apart),  never  having 
devised  an  adequate  system  of  land  taxation,  are 
left  to  levy  what  little  they  can  by  indirect  special 
taxes,  often  of  an  unwise  and  hampering  character — 
e.g.,  licences  restrictive  of  commerce  and  industry, 
slaughter-house  fees,  tolls,  liquor  and  other  monopo- 
lies, etc.  Land  taxes  are  ridiculously  low,  but  at 
that,  valuations  are  uneven  and  consequently  unjust, 
and  payment  is  often  evaded.  The  following  balance- 
sheets  '  of  representative  departments  for  1 9 1 1  will 
illustrate  the  paucity  of  their  resources  and  how  little 
can  be  expected  in  the  way  of  efficient  administration 
and  public  improvements  under  the  unaided  initiative 
of  the  departments  : 

Dollars.  Dollars. 

Magdalena  Depart-  5  Revenue 

MENT 


Santander  Depart-  5  Revenue 

MENT 


:t-  (  Revenue  ...  163,503  )  _ 

...i  Expenses  ...  161,192  P"^P^"^  -^'3" 

T- J  Revenue  ...  280,291  )  j^^^^j^  3     ^ 

...  ( Expenses  ...  370,056 )  ^"  •* 


The  budget  of  the  Department  of  Caldas  for  the 
fiscal  year  191 2-13  is  more  hopeful  :  estimated 
revenue  $466,192,  all  of  which  is  appropriated  for 
expenses.  The  Department  of  Cundinamarca,  the 
seat  of  the  national  capital,  naturally  commands 
greater  resources:  its  budget  for  191 2-13  is 
$949,348. 

The  resources  of  the  municipal  districts  (muni- 
clpios),  especially  the  less  populous  ones,  are  even 
more  limited,  the  revenue  per  capita  rarely  exceed- 
ing a  dollar,  gold,  a  year.     The  following  annual  in- 

'  Data  supplied  to  the  author  by  the  governors. 


Annual  Income 

Population. 

Dollars. 

3.407 

2,327 

20,000 

19,264 

3,000 

1,604 

15.492 

7.165 

9,000 

9,050 

10,14s 

4.179 

4.584 

3.230 

1,500 

757 

34.913 

44.720 

3,000 

2,875 

15.279 

25,000 

6,250 

1,906 

GOVERNMENT   AND    LAW  65 

comes    of   a   few   typical   districts    taken   at   random 
are  illuminating.  ^ 


Angelopolis 

Bucaramanga 

Bosa 

Corozal 

Envigado 

Guaderas 

Itague 

Juan  de  Acosta 

Manizales   ... 

Palmar  de  Varela 

Sabanalarga 

San  Jacinto 


Therefore  this  economic  helplessness  of  the  depart- 
ments, coupled  with  the  fact  that  the  governors, 
prefects,  and  alcaldes  are  appointed  mediately  or 
immediately  by  the  President,  causes  all  power  to 
be  centralized  at  the  national  capitol,  Bogota.  There, 
in  offices  in  the  new  presidential  palace,  which  also 
serves  as  his  residence,  rules  the  chief  Executive 
of  the  nation.  The  palace,  centrally  located  in  the 
city,  is  of  an  unpretentious  though  tasteful  exterior  ; 
the  interior  is  wholly  charming,  with  a  refreshing 
flower-filled  patio  and  fountain  in  the  centre,  the 
rooms  bright,  the  whole  impressively  neat  and  clean  ; 
the  offices  possess  an  air  of  dignity  and  quiet  constant 
activity  in  marked  contrast  to  the  typical  alcalde's 
bureau  such  as  we  have  pictured.  Democratic  sim- 
plicity reigns  :  a  secretary,  a  chief  clerk,  and  three 
subordinates  are  all  that  are  provided  for  by  law. 
In  addition,  the  President  makes  use  of  messengers 
and  a  soldier  or  two  attached  to  the  palace,  but  his 
chief  assistance  comes  through  the  various  Ministries. 

A  block  away  from  the  palace  is  the  national 
Capitol,  a  structure  of  classical  architectural  correct- 

'  Data  furnished  mostly  by  the  alcaldes  of  the  year  191 1. 
6 


66  COLOMBIA 

ness  fronting  on  a  large,  but  rather  bare  plaza  or 
square.  The  building  was  erected  by  General 
Mosquera,  but  never  fully  completed  according  to 
his  plans  ;  the  interior  is  unadorned,  disappointing, 
and  in  need  of  renovation  :  in  it  are  housed  some 
of  the  principal  Government  offices,  and  here  sits  the 
Legislature. 

The  Congress  is  composed  of  a  Senate,  whose 
members  are  elected  for  terms  of  four  years  by  small 
electoral  colleges,  elected  in  their  turn  by  the  depart- 
mental assemblies,  and  a  House  of  Representatives 
{Catnara  de  Representantes),  one  for  each  50,000 
inhabitants,  elected  by  direct  vote  for  terms  of  two 
years.  Sessions  are  held  annually,  but  the  President 
and  "Ministers  (who  constitute  "  el  Gobierno,''  the 
Government)  can  convoke  special  sessions.  Presi- 
dents have  also  exercised  the  right,  instead  of  having 
elections  for  Congress,  of  convoking  a  National 
Assembly,  the  membership  of  which  has  been 
appointed  by  the  departmental  assemblies,  upon 
whom  pressure  can  be  somewhat  more  readily  exerted 
by  the  Executive  than  upon  a  direct  vote  at  honestly 
conducted  polls.  The  distinction  between  a  "  Con- 
gress "  and  a  "  National  Assembly  "  is  somewhat 
hard  for  the  foreigner  to  grasp,  especially  as  the 
Constitution  makes  no  provision  for  the  latter  body, 
but  it  is  held  that  the  right  of  the  sovereign  people 
to  assemble — a  right  exercised  when  they  adopt  the 
Constitution — is  inherent  and  superior  even  to  the 
Constitution  itself. ' 


'  It  was  very  frankly  stated  in  the  preamble  of  the  Executive 
Decree  convoking  such  an  Assembly  in  1905,  after  a  deadlock  in 
Congress,  "It  is  not  in  the  Constitution  but  in  the  supreme  law  of 
necessity  that  the  basis  for  an  act  of  such  transcendental  impor- 
tance must  be  sought."  And  such  an  Assembly  can  amend  the 
Constitution  without  the  slower  proceedings  provided  by  that  instru- 
ment itself.  In  1886  the  President  himself  designated  the  member- 
ship of  the  Assembly.     When  such  have  been  the  political  practices 


GOV^ERNMENT   AND   LAW  67 

The  debates  in  Congress,  which  are  well  reported 
in  the  daily  Press  of  Bogota,  are  interesting,  con- 
siderable learning  and  forensic  skill  being  displayed, 
but  it  has  often  proved  difficult  to  obtain  concerted 
ajction  for  broad  constructive  measures  :  the  conse- 
quence is  that  a  great  deal  of  the  legislation  is  of 
trivial  character.  Laws  must  be  passed  by  both 
Houses  and  receive  the  approval  of  the  President, 
who  has  the  right  to  veto  any  Bill,  but  it  may  be 
passed  over  his  veto  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each 
House.  This  right  of  the  Congress  to  overrule  a 
veto  is  subject  to  the  restriction  that  if  the  Bill  be 
objected  to  by  the  President  on  the  ground  that  it 
violates  the  Constitution,  then  if  Congress  insist,  it 
passes  to  the  Supreme  Court  for  a  final  decision  as 
to  its  validity.' 

The  Supreme  Court  consists  of  nine  magistrates, 
four  elected  by  the  Senate,  five  by  the  House  of 
Representatives,  from  lists  of  nominations  presented 
by  the  President.  Its  highest  function  consists  in 
passing  upon  the  constitutionality  of  laws  and  execu- 
tive decrees  ;  the  Constitution  expressly  provides 
the  "  protection  of  the  integrity  of  the  Constitution 
is  entrusted  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice,"  but 
the  tradition  of  a  strong  and  independent  judiciary 
is  wanting  in  Colombia,  and  is  likely  to  be  militated 
against  by  the  short  term — five  years  in  the  Supreme 
Court,  four  years  in  the  Superior  Courts — for  which 
the  judges  are  now  elected.  The  judges  of  the 
Superior  Courts  are  appointed  by  the  Supreme  Court 
from    nominations    made    by    the    respective    depart- 

(and  may  be  again  any  time  in  the  future,  wholly  aside  from  any 
revolution  or  dictatorship),  one  can  readily  see  why  it  is  not  to  the 
Constitution  alone  that  we  must  look  for  the  practical  working  of 
the  Colombian  Government. 

'  This  interesting  procedure  was  invoked  in  respect  to  the  last 
law  (No.  65)  passed  by  the  191 1  Congress  in  regard  to  appropria- 
tions for  charities,  the  Presidential  veto  being  sustained. 


68  COLOMBIA 

mental  assemblies  ;  municipal  judges  are  elected  by 
the  town  councils.  The  judges  have  in  the  past 
generally  shown  themselves  subservient  to  the  Execu- 
tive Power  ;  when  unwilling  to  bow  down,  their 
only  recourse  has  been  to  resign,  not  having  had 
strength  and  support  sufficient  to  make  an  efifective 
contest. 

It  is  not  to  the  judiciary  alone,  therefore,  that  we 
can  look  for  assurances  of  stable,  orderly,  and  con- 
stitutional government  in  Colombia.  But  in  litiga- 
tion not  affected  by  politics,  the  administration  of 
justice  in  the  upper  tribunals  throughout  the  country 
compares  not  so  unfavourably  with  that  in  the 
majority  of  countries  throughout  the  globe.  The 
law's  delays  in  civil  litigation  are  a  grievance  here 
as  elsewhere  :  the  procedure,  largely  the  Spanish 
procedure  with  a  few  modifications  copied  from  the 
French,  is  susceptible  of  many  reforms  :  the  clear- 
cut,  snappy  "  day  in  court,"  where  witnesses  are  con- 
fronted one  with  another,  examined  and  subjected 
to  that  best  of  all  methods  of  getting  at  the  truth, — 
a  severe  cross-examination,  followed  by  the  summing- 
up  of  the  advocates — is  unknown  ;  the  examination 
of  witnesses  is  conducted  quietly  and  slowly,  as  in 
our  equity  procedure,  usually  by  means  of  written 
questions  read  to  them  by  the  secretary  or  clerk  of 
the  court,  and  the  answers  taken  down  in  longhand 
with  equal  deliberation.  There  being  no  jury,  oral 
arguments  are  rare.  The  procedure  does  not  tend 
to  develop  skilful  trial  lawyers,  but  there  is  no  dearth 
of  legal  ability  throughout  the  country  as  there  is 
no  dearth,  either,  of  lawyers.  Those  of  them  who 
have  obtained  a  University  education,  and  many,  by 
courtesy,  who  have  not,  are  styled  "  doctors  "  :  it 
is  a  common  observation  of  travellers  that  in  the 
upper  classes  every  other  man  seems  to  be  a 
"  doctor  "  ;  there  are  far  more  lawyers  than  legal 
business,   and  except   in   the   largest   towns,   they  aU 


GOVERNMENT   AND    LAW  69 

resort  to  other  occupations  or  to  their  inherited 
estates  for  the  means  of  subsistence.  At  the  Uni- 
versities they  receive  a  sound  legal  training  in 
fundamental  principles  of  jurisprudence,  and  the 
temperament  of  the  Colombians  naturally  inclines  to 
legal  subtlety  and  astuteness  :  the  less  reputable 
practitioners,  versed  in  all  the  intricacies  and  tricks 
of  procedure,  are  given  the  picturesque  title  of 
tinterillos,  or  ink-slingers,  reminiscent  of  the  old 
Spanish  proverb,  "  Mucha  tinta  y  poca  justicia  " — 
"  Much  ink  but  scant  justice  "  ;  but  there  are  plenty 
of  sound  lawyers  and  learned  legal  writers — in  fact, 
in  view  of  the  small  population  of  the  country,  the 
production  of  legal  literature  is  quite  remarkable,  and 
betrays  a  keen  interest  in  problems  of  jurisprudence. 
French  and  Spanish  influences  are  predominant  in 
shaping  the  law  of  the  country  ;  the  writings  of 
English,  American,  and  German  jurists  are  scarcely 
known,  except  as  they  filter  through  French  sources  : 
on  the  other  hand,  French  commentators  are  regarded 
with  high  authority,  and  usually  control  the  decisions 
of  the  courts  on  points  where  the  Colombian  Codes 
are  obscure.'  This  is  very  natural,  as  the  basic  one 
of  these  Codes,  the  Civil  Code,  is  largely  founded 
on  the  Code  Napoleon.  The  Colombian  Code  is  a 
copy  for  the  most  part  of  the  Chilean  Code,  which 
was  drafted  by  one  of  the  ablest  jurists  South  America 

'  The  principal  Colombian  Codes  have  been  translated  into 
English  as  follows  :  by  Frank  L.  Joannini  :  The  Civil  Code  oj 
Panama  in  Force  in  Ihc  Ca7ial  Zone,  and  The  Law  of  Civil  Procedjire  in 
Force  in  Panama  and  the  Canal  Zone  (a  part  of  the  Judicial  Code), 
published  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  Washington,  D.C., 
1905  ;  by  Edward  S.  Cox  Sinclair  :  The  Commercial  Laws  of  the 
World,  vol.  ii.,  Colombia,  ed.  by  Dr.  A.  J.  Uribe  (London  and  Boston, 
U.S.A.,  1912) ;  by  Phanor  J.  Eder  :  The  Mining  Laws  of  the  Republic 
of  Colombia  (Washington,  D.C.,  1912).  The  remaining  Codes,  not 
mentioned  in  the  text  or  this  note,  are  chiefly  administrative,  viz., 
the  Fiscal  Code,  the  Military  Code,  the  Code  of  F omenta,  the  Police 
Code,  and  the  Code  of  Public  Instruction. 


70  COLOMBIA 

has  ever  produced,  Dr.  Andres  Bello,  who  modelled 
his  work  on  the  French  Civil  Code,  and  incorporated 
a  host  of  its  provisions,  but  improved  on  it.  As  a< 
consequence,  Colombia  has  a  clear,  harmonious,  and 
scientific  body  of  general  law,  though  of  course  it 
cannot  equal  those  monuments  of  comprehensive, 
scientific,  and  thorough  jurisprudence,  the  recent 
German  and  Swiss  Codes. 

The  Commercial  Codes — there  are  two,  one  dealing 
especially  with  maritime  law — are  chiefly  based  on 
the  Spanish  law,  though  also  influenced  by  the 
French.  They  also  could  be  revised  with  profit  to 
meet  modern  mercantile  conditions  :  they  are  per- 
vaded by  a  certain  formalism,  not  consistent  with 
the  elasticity  and  freedom  which  modern  business 
development  requires,  and  which  is  consequently  often 
evaded  or  neglected  in  practice.  Separate  com- 
mercial tribunals  have  not  been  established,  although 
permitted  by  the  Constitution,  and  the  collection  of 
debts,  the  settlement  of  business  disputes,  and  the 
winding  up  of  insolvent  estates  is  a  long,  tedious 
process  ;  if  improvement  were  made,  undoubtedly 
Colombian  merchants  could  obtain  better  credits 
abroad. 

The  Penal  Code,  likewise  showing  strong  French 
influences,  is  antiquated,  but  the  administration  of 
criminal  law  is  more  expeditious  than  that  of  civil 
law,  and  on  the  whole,  barring  a  certain  inertia  on 
the  part  of  prosecuting  officers,  is  creditable.  For 
the  more  serious  crimes  a  trial  by  jury  is  had,  but 
the  jurors  are  only  three  is  number. 

Colombians  are  essentially  a  law-abiding  people, 
and  the  percentage  of  crime,  as  far  as  one  can  judge 
in  the  absence  of  penal  statistics,  seems  to  be  small  ; 
petty  thievery  is  common,  and  convictions  therefor 
hard  to  obtain  ;  drunkenness  produces  much  disorder 
and  not  a  few  homicides,  but  serious,  premeditated 
crimes  are  rare  ;    highway  robbery,   for  instance,   is 


GOVERNMENT   AND   LAW  71 

unknown  ;  one  can  travel  for  days  on  unfrequented 
roads  with  valuables  in  hand,  alone  and  unarmed,  yet 
with  a  perfect  sense  of  security. 

After  conviction,  the  lot  of  the  poor  criminal  is 
not  an  enviable  one  :  Colombian  prisons  are  a  dis- 
grace, dirty,  unsanitary,  full  of  vermin,  without  cots 
(no  great  hardship,  however,  as  their  inmates  are 
accustomed  to  sleeping  on  the  floor  or  ground),  and 
rations  so  scanty  and  poor  that  prisoners  usually  have 
food  brought  daily  by  their  family  or  friends. 
Reformatories  have  not  been  instituted  ;  prison  re- 
form is  an  unknown  idea — in  fact,  though  modern 
theories  of  criminology  and  penology  are  fairly  well 
known  to  Colombian  thinkers,  no  practical  applica- 
tion has  been  attempted.  There  is  here  a  great 
field,  and  one  foreign  to  party  politics,  on  which 
Colombian  statesmen  and  reformers  can  profitably 
labour. 


CHAPTER     VI 

FINANCES   AND  BANKING 

Colombia's  paper  money  is  a  source  of  much  amuse- 
ment to  the  casual  traveller  who  visits  its  ports  for 
a  few  hours  on  one  of  those  delightful  Caribbean 
cruises  so  enticingly  featured  by  the  steamship  com- 
panies. Upon  his  return  home  he  will  narrate  with 
zest  to  a  circle  of  friends  or  perchance  readers — for 
he  has  been  known  to  write  an  article  or  even  a 
book  from  out  the  vast  knowledge  gleaned  in  those 
few  hours — how  he  gave  a  ten-dollar  bill  or  a  five- 
pound  note  in  payment  of  some  small  purchase  and 
received  hundreds  of  dollars  in  change  ;  he  will 
joke  about  the  "  high  cost  of  living,"  how  he  paid 
five  dollars  for  a  few  oranges,  twenty  dollars  for 
a  bottle  of  beer,  a  hundred  dollars  for  a  lunch  !  But 
to  the  business  man  in  Colombia  or  the  statesman 
grappling  with  its  finances,  the  paper  money  is  no 
subject  for  jest  :  it  presents  one  of  the  most  serious 
problems  to  be  dealt  with  :  because  of  it  dire  ruin 
has  time  and  again  stared  the  country  in  the  face. 
To-day,  the  monetary  situation  is  somewhat  brighter 
than  it  has  been  for  years  past,  but  the  paper  money 
at  best  is  a  grievous  nuisance,  a  clog  on  the  wheels 
of  industry  and  commerce,  and  at  worst,  with  its 
possibilities  of  violent  fluctuations  in  value,  a  menace 
and  a  blight. 

Till   about    1881,    Colombia    had    been    on    a    bi- 
metallic   basis  ;     the    currency    of    the    country    was 

72 


FINANCES   AND   BANKING  73 

gold  and  silver  and  there  was  no  paper.  For  some 
years  previously  prosperity  had  reigned,  the  exports 
were  relatively  large.  But  in  1883,  notwithstanding 
the  gold  basis,  foreign  exchange  was  at  a  premium 
of  20  per  cent.  There  was  a  financial  crisis.  One 
of  the  principal  exports  had  been  cinchona  bark — 
in  1875  over  £2,000,000  of  that  article  alone  had 
been  exported — but  the  enormous  product  from  cul- 
tivation in  Java  and  the  British  East  Indies  reduced 
the  price  :  whereas  in  1879  ^he  sulphate  of  quinine 
had  reached  the  high  price  of  i6s.  6d.  an  ounce, 
in  1883  it  had  dropped  to  3s.  6d.i  The  low  price 
of  coffee  and  tobacco,  the  other  chief  exports  of 
Colombia,  added  to  the  gravity  of  the  situation.  The 
balance  of  trade  was  against  Colombia.  Already 
there  had  been  a  constant  and  progressive  expor- 
tation of  gold  currency,  as  free  coinage  of  both  gold 
and  silver  was  allowed,  and  the  value  of  silver  as 
prescribed  by  law  and  as  legal  tender  was  higher 
than  its  market  value.  Soon,  little  gold  being  left, 
the  silver  money,  too,  began  to  leave  the  country. 
It  is  said  that  during  the  crisis  in  1883  the  money 
in  circulation  in  Bogota,  the  capital,  a  city  of  100,000 
inhabitants,  was  reduced  as  low  as  $200,000  ! 
Private  banks  began  to  abuse  the  right  which  the 
law  allowed  them  to  issue  notes,  and  still  further 
contributed  to  the  elimination  of  metallic  currency. 
After  the  triumph  of  Nuiiez  in  the  revolution  of 
1885  and  his  defeat  of  the  rebels,  it  was  decreed 
that,  dating  from  May  i,  1886,  the  monetary  unit 
of  the  country  should  be  the  dollar  {peso)  bill  of 
the  National  Bank.  The  Banco  Nacional  was  an 
institution  founded  with  enormous  privileges  in   1880 

'  By  1885  the  price  had  dropped  to  2S.  6d.  an  ounce,  and  the 
cinchona  trade  received  its  death-blow  in  Colombia.  Calderon  : 
La  Cuestion  Moneiaria  in  Colombia,  1905,  a  book  to  which  and  to 
Nieto  Caballero's  thesis,  El  Curso  Forzoso  y  sii  Historia  en  Colombia 
(Bogota,  191 2),  the  author  is  greatly  indebted. 


74  COLOMBIA 

by  Nunez  ;  its  shares  had  been  offered  to  the  public, 
but  none  were  taken  :  the  Government  became  the 
sole  shareholder,  investing  $1,047,009.30  out  of  an 
authorized  capital  of  $2,500,000.  It  was  given  and 
availed  itself  of  the  right  to  issue  bills,  redeemable 
in  specie.  In  1886,  however,  it  was  granted  the 
right  to  issue  $4,000,000  in  bills,  without  any 
obligation  to  so  redeem  them.  This  was  the  begin- 
ning of  fiat  money  in  Colombia.  By  a  law  of  1881 
private  banks  were  bound  to  accept  the  National 
Bank  bills  at  their  face  value,  under  penalty  of  losing 
their  own  right  to  issue  notes.  Worst  of  all,  it  was 
prohibited  by  law  to  make  contracts,  either  for  cash 
or  on  credit,  in  any  other  money. 

In  spite  of  this  very  unsound  basis,  and  of  a  mass 
of  contradictory  and  confusing  laws  and  decrees, 
the  country  did  not  very  materially  suffer  for  a 
number  of  years.  There  was  no  excessive  issue  of 
paper  money,  although  the  amount  kept  steadily  in- 
creasing. It  enjoyed  a  certain  credit,  as  it  was 
deemed  to  be  ultimately,  even  if  not  immediately, 
redeemable  ;  exchange  did  not  greatly  fluctuate, 
paper  was  almost  at  a  parity  with  silver. 

Nickel  pieces  were  coined,  and  free  coinage  of 
silver,  but  at  "500  fine,  was  maintained.  In  1892, 
the  President's  message  reported  the  base  money 
circulation  of  the   country  to   be   as   follows  : — 

Dollars. 

National  Bank  bills       12,000,000 

Silver  coins,    -500  fine 4,243,298 

Nickel       3,427,298 

Besides  this,  there  was  a  considerable  amount,  be- 
lieved to  be  some  $2,000,000,  of  paper  money  ille- 
gally issued.  Issues  continued.  In  1894  a  law 
was  passed  prohibiting  any  new  issue,  except  in  case 
of  foreign  war  or  internal  disturbance.  There  was 
a  revolutionary  flurry  in  1895,  so  the  privilege  was 
availed    of.      When    Caro     went     out     of     office    in 


FINANCES   AND   BANKING  75 

1898,  there  was  in  circulation,  in  round  numbers, 
$31,400,000  of  the  Banco  Nacional  bills.  The  next 
year,  a  revolution  broke  out  in  earnest.  The  Govern- 
ment needed  money,  lots  of  money,  to  carry  on  the 
war.  The  printing  presses  were  at  hand.  Nothing 
could  be  simpler.  Paper  money  was  issued,  not 
merely  by  the  millions,  but  by  the  tens  and  hun- 
dreds of  millions.  The  National  Government  issued 
it.  The  Departments  issued  it.  Even  some  generals 
in  the  field  issued  it.  The  rate  of  exchange,  which 
had  been  from  300  to  335  before  the  revolution  {I.e., 
a  paper  dollar  had  been  worth  about  30  cents  gold, 
almost  on  a  parity  with  the  silver  dollar),  began 
to  go  up,  up,  up.  In  1900  exchange  rose  above 
1,000 — the  paper  dollar  was  worth  10  cents  gold  : 
by  the  end  of  1901  it  had  reached  5,000 — the  dirty 
sheet  was  then  equivalent  to  two  cents.  The  most 
violent  fluctuations  occurred,  thousands  of  points  a 
day,  with  the  varying  successes  or  rumours  of  defeat 
of  the  Government.  In  1902  matters  were  even 
worse  ;  exchange  rose  at  one  time  as  high  as  26,000 
— the  value  of  the  paper  dollar  was  a  mere  fraction 
of  a  cent  !  But  the  Government  was  triumphing — 
exchange  began  to  drop.  At  the  end  of  the  war 
(1903)  it  was  impossible  to  tell  how  much  paper 
money  was  outstanding,  what  with  the  various  issues 
and  the  mass  of  counterfeits,  often  better  engraved 
than  the  genuine.  The  amount  was  certainly  not 
less  than  a  billion — the  national  issues  alone,  since 
1885,  amounted  to  $746,801,420  p/m.'  There  was 
no  pretence,  no  hope  that  this  would  be  ever  redeem- 
able, but  it  was  legal  tender  ;  old  debts  were  paid 
off  in  this  depreciated  currency.  The  creditor  who 
had  loaned  a  thousand  dollars  gold,  hard  cash,  had 
mockingly  flung  in  his  face  and  was  by  law  com- 
pelled to  receive  a  thousand  pesos  paper — worth  ten 
dollars  I 

■  P/m  is  the  common  abbreviation  in  Colombia  for  paper  money — 
papel  moneda. 


76  COLOMBIA 

In  the  absence  of  gold  and  silver,  which  had 
entirely  disappeared  except  in  a  few  privileged 
regions  (the  Choco,  Pasto,  and  the  frontier  towns 
where  the  inhabitants  had  obstinately  declined  paper), 
some  medium  of  exchange  was  necessary  :  by  a 
sort  of  common  consent  the  paper  money  was 
received  in  trade  after  the  revolution  at  a  rate  of 
exchange  fluctuating  around  10,000 — about  a  cent 
on  the  dollar.  At  this  rate  it  has  ever  since 
remained,  with  but  comparatively  slight  fluctuations. 

A  remedy  for  the  more  pressing  evils  had  to  be 
found.  A  law  was  passed  in  October,  1903,  at  the 
first  session  of  Congress  after  the  revolution,  pro- 
hibiting further  issues  of  paper  money,  fixing  a  gold 
standard,  permitting  the  circulation  of  foreign  money, 
making  paper  money  legal  tender  only  at  its  market 
rate  of  exchange,  permitting  full  freedom  of  contract 
to  stipulate  for  payment  either  in  gold  or  paper 
(libre  estipulacion),  and  finally,  creating  a  Council 
or  Junta  of  Amortization.  This  board  was  autho- 
rized to  collect  certain  national  revenues,  some  of 
which  were  payable  in  gold,  and  it  was  its  duty  to 
auction  the  gold  so  received  and  to  burn  the  paper 
money  received  by  it  as  the  purchase  price  of  the 
gold,  as  well  as  that  received  in  payment  of  certain 
other   revenues   payable  in   paper. 

By  this  law,  too^  customs  duties  could  be  paid  either 
in  gold  or,  most  important  privilege,  in  paper  money 
at  the  current  rate  of  exchange.  Some  tangible 
value  was  at  last  given.  Solid  land  began  to  appear 
after  the  deluge  in  which  all  business  was  drowning. 
The  Junta  de  Amortizacion  performed  its  duties  well  : 
weekly,  mountains  of  the  fiat  money  were  publicly 
burned.  Its  work  was  cut  short,  however,  by  General 
Reyes,  who  ordered  the  funds  destined  for  amortiza- 
tion to  be  paid  into  the  Treasury  for  the  general 
expense  fund  of  the  nation  ;  to  replace  the  Junta,  he 
conceived  and  carried  out  the  idea  of  re-establishinsr 


FINANCES   AND   BANKING  77 

a  national  bank.      It  was  called  the  Banco  Central 
and  received  extraordinary  privileges  with  the  object 
of   not    only    handling    the    money    problem,    but    of 
aiding  in  the  solution  of  the  fiscal  questions  of  the 
Government.     Organized  by  a  syndicate  of  Colom- 
bian   capitalists — an    inner   group    of   friends   of   the 
administration  and  of  powerful  financial   interests — 
its    shares    were    offered    for     sale    throughout    the 
country,  but  were  not  over  favourably  received.     Of 
the   authorized   and   intended   capital   of   $8,000,000 
gold  (80,000  shares  at  $100  each),  only  some  31,925 
shares  were  eventually  taken,  $50  a  share  being  pay- 
able cash  down,  the  remaining  $50  to  be  subject  to 
call  by  the  Board  of  Directors,  but  it  has  never  been 
called.      Among  the  duties   or   rights   of  the  bank — 
to   enumerate  all  its   extraordinary   privileges  would 
be  a  lengthy   task — were  :    to   collect  certain  of  the 
Government    revenues,    receiving    a    commission    of 
10  per  cent,  of  the  net  proceeds  for  so  doing,  the 
expense    of    collection    being    for     account    of    the 
Government  ;    to  exchange  the  current  paper  money 
for    a    new,     well-engraved     edition     ordered     from 
England  ;     to    be    the    Government    depositary  ;     to 
loan    the    Government   (from    its    own    revenues    in 
process  of  collection,  it  will  be  noted)  moneys  neces- 
sary  to   pay   the   interest   on   the   foreign   debt   and 
to  arrange  such   payment  ;    to   issue  bank-notes,   to 
the  exclusion  of  all   other  institutions,   to  twice   the 
amount  of  its  paid-up  capital,  keeping  a  cash  reserve 
in    gold    or    Government    paper    equivalent    to    only 
30  per  cent,  of  the  amount  issued  ;    telegraph  and 
postal  franks   and   minor   exemptions   from   customs 
dues  and  recording  fees  ;    to  do  all  in  its  power  to 
maintain  the  rate  of  exchange  at   10,000  ;    to  amor- 
tize the  Government  paper  money  with  25  per  cent., 
to  be  increased  later  to    50  per  cent.,  of  certain  of 
the  revenues  it  collected  ;    and  to  open  a  blank  credit 
to   the  Government   of  $r, 000,000,   to   be  increased 
later  to  $2,000,000. 


78  COLOMBIA 

The  bank  certainly  rendered  many  useful  services 
to  the  Government  and  to  the  country,  not  the  least 
of  which  v^ere  in  paying  the  interest  on  the  foreign 
debt,  in  powerfully  contributing  to  the  stability  of 
exchange,  and  in  reducing  the  rate  of  interest,  which 
at  the  time  of  its  foundation  was  currently  2  per 
cent,,  and  had  reached  as  high  as  7  per  cent,  a 
month,  to  i  per  cent,  a  month  and  even  less  for 
prime  bills  and  discounts.  But  the  extraordinary 
privileges  it  possessed,  the  suspicion  that  many  stock- 
holders were  making  fortunes  out  of  the  Govern- 
ment without  having  put  up  any  actual  cash  for  their 
shares,  and  the  reaction  against  all  the  Reyes'  poli- 
cies, easily  explain  the  opposition  it  aroused.  After 
the  retirement  of  Reyes,  consequently,  the  Govern- 
ment contract  with  the  bank  was  rescinded  ;  any 
damages  to  which  it  might  be  entitled  for  such  reason 
were  to  be  set  off  by  interest  which  the  new  Govern- 
ment claimed  to  be  due  to  the  Treasury.  The  Central 
was  continued  thereafter  merely  as  a  private  bank 
on  the  same  footing  as  other  banks. 

Subsequent  laws  to  that  creating  the  Banco 
Central,  by  fixing  the  legal  equivalence  of  paper 
for  gold  at  the  rate  of  10,000  for  the  payment  of 
duties,  taxes,  and  many  other  purposes,  have  helped 
to  maintain  the  stability  of  that  ratio  ;  and  by  legis- 
lation also  the  outworn,  dirty  old  bills  have  been 
replaced  by  newer  issues  (the  last  edition  was 
engraved  in  the  United  States)  and  a  small  amount 
of  nickel  and  silver  currency  has  been  coined  and 
put  into  circulation.  The  most  recent  important  law 
dealing  with  the  currency  is  No.  69  of  1909,  which 
created  a  Conversion  Board — Junta  de  Conversion — 
modelled  somewhat  on  the  lines  of  the  former  Junta 
de  Amortizacion,  charged  with  the  duty  of  ex- 
changing old  bills  for  new  and  for  silver  ('900 
fine)  and  nickel,  and  of  taking  such  steps  as  may 
be  deemed  proper  to  avoid  fluctuations  in  exchange. 


FINANCES   AND   BANKING  79 

The  old  Government  Mint  at  Medellin  has  recently 
been  re-opened  also  for  the  coinage  of  gold  ;  but 
gold  coin  can  be  exported  as  easily  as  gold  dust 
and  bars,  and  of  course  will  be  whenever  the  foreign 
rate  of  exchange  makes  it  profitable  to  do  so. 

The  insufficiency  of  the  total  amount  of  money 
in  circulation  for  the  needs  of  the  country's  business 
has,  however,  been  disturbing.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  provisions  of  the  last-named  law,  by  which  certain 
Government  revenues  (namely,  the  product  of  the 
emerald  mines  of  Muzo  and  Coscuez  and  of  certain 
other  mines,  the  2  per  cent,  surcharge  on  customs, 
the  premium  on  coinage  of  silver  and  nickel,  and, 
looking  to  the  future,  returns  from  the  cession  of 
the  right  to  issue  bank-notes  and  any  possible  sur- 
plus) are  set  aside  to  form  a  metallic  reserve  to 
guarantee  the  conversion  of  the  paper  money,  coupled 
especially  with  the  improving  condition  of  the  national 
finances,  have  been  the  greatest  factors  of  late  in 
maintaining  the  stability  of  exchange  at  near  the 
legal  rate. 

To  effect  an  improvement  in  the  nation's  balance- 
sheet  has  been  no  easy  task.  One  serious  difficulty 
that  the  Government  has  to  contend  with  is  the 
great  unpopularity,  among  the  classes  wielding 
political  influence,  of  any  policy  of  economy.  The 
reduction  of  salaries  to  the  level  of  the  actual  worth 
of  the  services  rendered,  or  even  the  suppression 
of  useless  posts,  meets  with  decided  opposition.  The 
late  Minister  of  the  Exchequer  {Hacienda)  bitterly 
complains  :  i  "  It  is  undeniable  that  the  number  of 
public  employees  is  excessive,  and  that  in  general 
they  work  less  and  get  better  pay  than  similar  em- 
ployees in  private  industry.  For  more  than  twenty 
years,  the  complaint  has  been  formulated  that  the 
force  of  officials  is  continually  increasing  without  any 
real  need.  .  .  .  The  more  employees  there  are,  the 
'  Tomas  O.  Eastman,  Report,  January  12,  191 1. 


80  COLOMBIA 

more  urgent  becomes  the  clamour  for  more  offices 
and  higher  salaries.  Hands  are  thus  taken  from 
industry  ;  the  bureaucracy  attains  an  uncontrollable 
influence,  and  becomes  a  social  calamity  ;  the  public 
gets  false  notions  as  to  the  legitimate  mission  of 
the  Government,  and  favours  hare-brained  political 
adventurers."  It  has  been  the  policy  of  the  present 
administration  to  introduce  such  economies  in  the 
Civil  Service  as  were  reasonably  possible  under  the 
laws,  but  patient  diplomatic  efforts  are  still  necessary, 
as  an  avalanche  of  discontented  or  discharged  office- 
holders and  their  hosts  of  friends,  relatives,  and 
sympathizers  might  overwhelm  the  Government.  In 
the  purchase  of  supplies  and  the  letting  of  public 
contracts  generally,  however,  the  administration  has 
been  able  to  act  with  a  firmer  hand  with  less  opposi- 
tion, and  in  this  regard  there  has  been  a  notable 
economy  and  a  notable  increase  in  the  "  value 
received  "  by  the  Government. 

In  the  face  of  an  income  calculated  for  191 1 
at  $9,779,500  and  authorized  expenditures  of 
$11,768,450,  the  Executive  scaled  down  the  expenses 
of  the  various  branches  as  it  was  permitted  to  do 
by  law,  not  only  to  the  extent  necessary  to  avoid  that 
deficit,  but  also  an  additional  $841,811  :  expenses 
were  cut  down  $2,830,761,  to  the  figure  of 
$8,937,688.40 — certainly  an  economical  sum  for  a 
nation  of  nearly  five  million  inhabitants.  The 
revenue,  too,  has  been  above  the  estimated  figure. 
In  1 910  the  Government  revenues  were  $12,220,760  : 
in    191 1,  $12,685,119.66,1  so  that  for  the  first  time 

»  In  detail  (some  consular  and  customs  returns  still  incomplete)  as 
follows  :  Customs  duties,  port  fees,  etc.,  $9,072,099 ;  consular  fees, 
.'$451,273  ;  posts  and  telegraphs,  $455,831  ;  succession  duties,  $85,285  ; 
Sabana  railroad,  $263,203  [of  which  $234,630  was  spent  on  better- 
ments] ;  national  properties,  $10,323  ;  patent  and  trademark  fees, 
I486  ;  marine  salines,  $598,716  ;  terrestrial  salt  mines  and  springs, 
$797,958  ;  mining  taxes  and  leases,  $49,158  [no  return  from  emerald 


FINANCES   AND   BANKING  81 

in  a  great  number  of  years  Colombia  can  rejoice  at  a 
surplus  instead  of  lamenting  a  deficit. 

If  this  austere  policy  of  puritanical  economy  could 
only  be  maintained,  Colombia's  financial  future  would 
be  not  merely  satisfactory,  but  brilliant.  The 
national  debt,  which  is  less  than  $24,000,000,  could 
be  amply  secured,  and  the  paper  money,  which  is  less 
than  $12,000,000  (in  its  equivalent  in  gold  at  the 
current  rate  of  exchange),  be  amortized.  The  placing 
of  a  new  loan,  consolidating  the  various  scattered 
items  of  indebtedness  now  outstanding,  some  of  them 
at  high  rates  of  interest,  would  materially  assist  the 
problem. 

The  resources  of  the  country  are  daily  developing, 
its  income  daily  increasing,  yet  its  national  debt  per 
capita  remains  one  of  the  smallest  of  any  of  the 
American  nations.  There  is  scarcely  a  country  in 
the  world,  therefore,  which  ofi"ers  to  the  enterprising 
financier  a  better  field  for  a  large  bank  and  loan 
venture,  with  a  high  and  legitimate  profit  and  a 
fair  margin  of  safety. 

Diplomacy  of  a  high  order  is,  however,  required 
to  carry  through  negotiations  to  a  successful  termina- 
tion ;  the  Colombian  Government  and  people,  it  must 
be  confessed,  are  not  easy  to  negotiate  with,  and 
cannot  easily  be  made  to  perceive  the  standpoint 
of  the  foreign  banker  and  investor  ;  they  are  not 
willing  to  jump  at  the  first  offer  of  a  loan,  on  any 
terms  whatsoever  ;  some  clauses  in  contracts  which 
the  foreign  banker,  in  view  of  his  home  markets, 
insists  upon,  the  Colombian  is  loath  to  grant  ;  for 
instance,  the  very  reasonable  requirement  that  upon 
default  in  the  payment  of  interest  the  principal  shall 
become  due  and  payable  meets  with  violent  opposi- 
tion  and   opprobrium,   even   from   the   able   Minister 

mines]  ;  stamp  taxes  and  law  paper,  $476,680 ;  cigarettes  and 
matches,  $56,060 ;  territorial  revenues  [Choco  and  Meta],  $59,022  ; 
river  navigation  tax,  $116,918  ;  miscellaneous  revenues,  $191,102. 

7 


82  COLOMBIA 

whose  report  I  have  quoted.  Who  wills  the  end, 
wills  the  means  ;  conversely,  who  does  not  will  the 
means,  does  not  will  the  end,  and  we  are  often 
forced  to  the  conclusion  that  Colombia,  rejecting  the 
only  possible  means,  does  not  at  heart  really  desire 
foreign  capital. 

Whether  or  not  a  new  loan  be  floated,  the  outlook 
for  the  foreign  bondholders  is  favourable,  which 
accounts  for  the  rise  in  the  quotations  of  these  bonds 
from  20  in  1904  to  50  at  the  present  day  ;  a  still 
further  rise  can  be  looked  forward  to.  In  the  past, 
however,  the  history  of  the  foreign  debt  has  been  a 
sad  one,  both  for  Colombia  and  for  her  creditors. 
The  writer  of  the  article  in  the  Encyclopcedia 
BrUannica  (iith  ed.)  rightly  said,  "In  financial 
matters,  Colombia  is  known  abroad  chiefly  through 
repeated  defaults  in  meeting  her  bonded  indebted- 
ness, and  through  the  extraordinary  depreciation  of 
her  paper  currency  "  ;  but  in  the  past  few  years 
she  has  gone  far  towards  redeeming  her  former  evil 
reputation. 

The  greater  part  of  the  foreign  debt  dates  back 
to  the  improvident  loans  obtained  at  the  time  of  the 
Independence  ;  very  little  of  the  money  for  which 
Colombia  became  indebted  was  actually  received  by 
the  nation  ;  heavy  initial  discounts,  commission  and 
brokerage,  padded  expense  charges,  and  a  certain 
amount  of  peculation  reduced  the  cash  received  to 
a  low  figure  :  unpaid  interest,  accumulated  till  it 
overshadowed  the  original  debt,  was  from  time  to 
time  added  to  the  principal.  Consequently  not  an 
iota  of  benefit  to  the  present  generation  is  represented 
by  this  debt.  On  the  other  hand,  a  compensation 
has  been  obtained  by  the  very  extensive  scaling  down 
of  principal  and  accrued  interest  to  which  the  bond- 
holders have  at  difi"erent  times  consented.  In  1845, 
New  Granada  recognized  as  its  share  of  the  debt 
of    La   Gran   Colombia,   and   issued   new   bonds   for. 


FINANCES   AND   BANKING  83 

^3? 77 6,79 1.  Interest  payments  were  not  kept  up. 
In  i860  the  debt  reached  £4,800,000:  in  1873, 
£6,630,000,  from  which  figure  it  was  scaled  down 
to  £2,000,000  :  in  1896,  what  with  unpaid  interest, 
it  had  reached  £3,514,442;  part  of  the  accrued 
interest  was  again  released,  and  the  balance  added 
to  the  principal,  totalling  £2,700,000.  The  agree- 
ment of  1896  was  renewed  and  amended  in  1905  by 
agreement  with  the  Council  of  Foreign  Bondholders, 
and  since  that  year  the  interest,  reduced  to  3  per 
cent,  per  annum,  has  been  paid  in  full,  together 
with  commissions  and  an  amount  for  amortization, 
latterly  with  the  most  scrupulous  punctuality.  The 
1905  agreement  left  the  principal  intact  at 
£2,700,000  ;  of  the  accrued  interest,  amounting  to 
£351,000,  70  per  cent,  has  been  paid  ;  the  remain- 
ing 30  per  cent,  is  to  be  paid  only  if  Colombia  obtains 
damages  from  the  United  States  on  account  of  its 
Panama  claim.  A  distinct  advantage  was  gained 
by  the  bondholders  in  this  1905  settlement — known 
as  the  Avebury-Holguin  Agreement — in  securing  a 
pledge  of  12  per  cent,  (or  15  per  cent,  if  the  collec- 
tions fall  below  $5,000,000)  of  the  customs 
revenues.' 

The  internal  debt  of  Colombia  consists  of  the 
paper  currency,  which  is  now  definitely  recognized 
as  a  national  obligation,  and  sundry  items,  chiefly 
for  expropriations  and  military  services  during  the 
last  revolution,  amounting  to  $1,315,751.10,  gold 
(£263,150),  for  the  redemption  of  which  drawings 
are   being   held   monthly,    averaging    about    $42,000 

'  The  contract  was  severely  criticized  by  opponents  of  the  Reyes 
administration  as  giving  an  undue  preference  to  the  foreign  bond- 
holders over  domestic  and  general  creditors  of  Colombia,  and  as 
made  in  the  interests  of  speculating  "insiders."  For  a  lively  post 
mortem  discussion,  see  Santiago  Perez  Triana's  pamphlets  :  Desde 
Lejos ;  Desde  Lejos  y  Desde,  Cerca  ;  Dos  Cartas,  and  the  replies  of 
Jorge  Holguin  :  Desde  Cerca,  Cosasdel  Dia — 1907  to  1910. 


84  COLOMBIA 

(£8,400).  In  addition  the  Government  occasionally 
borrows  from  local  banks,  and  its  credit  is  now  good 
enough  to  enable  it  to  do  so  without  pledging  any 
specific  securities.  On  January  31,  19 12,  these  out- 
standing loans  from  Bogota  banks  amounted  to 
$262,297.29  (£52,459.83). 

At  the  present  day  none  of  the  banks  in  Colombia 
are  banks  of  issue,  nor  is  it  at  all  likely  that  such  a 
privilege  will  be  given  them  for  many  years  to  come. 
The  public  distrust  incited  by  the  past  history  of 
bank-notes  is  too  potent  to  be  overcome  by  any  but 
a  strong  syndicate  of  foreign  investors  establishing 
a  national  bank,  under  contract  with  the  Government, 
with  such  large  capital  and  a  directorate  so  above 
suspicion  as  to  command  absolute  and  unswerving 
confidence.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  a  national  bank 
of  issue  of  this  character  will  sooner  or  later  be 
established,  probably  in  conjunction  with  the  refund- 
ing of  the  national  debt.  Tentative  negotiations, 
I  understand,  have  been  quietly  undertaken  by  two 
or  three  eminent  international  bankers,  but  have  come 
to  nothing.  The  few  banks  now  existing  in  the 
country  are  private  institutions  pure  and  simple.  No 
Governmental  supervision  whatsoever  is  exercised, 
nor  would  it  be  practicable  in  the  present  state  of 
the  country's  development.  Not  only  are  the  quasi- 
public  functions  of  banks  unrecognized,  but  the 
people  at  large  havie  not,  except  to  a  small  degree 
in  the  largest  cities,  been  educated  up  to  their  uses. 
Payments  by  cheque  are  very  limited,  thus  throwing 
the  entire  burden  for  smaller  ordinary  transactions 
upon  the  currency  of  the  country  as  sole  medium  of 
exchange  ;  this,  taken  at  its  gold  equivalent  of  ten 
or  twelve  million  dollars,  is  utterly  insufficient  for 
the  business  needs  of  a  nation  of  more  than  five 
million  inhabitants  widely  scattered,  especially  when 
the  shipment  of  currency  from  place  to  place  is 
impeded  both  by  its  bulk  and  by  the  inadequacy  of 


wsmmsi^misssgmr 


BANCO   COMERCIAL,    BARRANQUILI.A. 


*tt-'  .t.t^ 


BANCO  I)E  COLOMBIA,  BOGOTA. 


FINANCES   AND   BANKING  85 

transportation  facilities.  In  consequence,  in  larger 
transactions  (for  example,  sales  of  real  estate,  herds 
of  cattle,  or  wholesale  quantities  of  merchandise), 
though  in  nowise  partaking  of  an  international  char- 
acter, settlements  are  commonly  made  by  bills  of 
exchange  on  Europe  or  the  United  States.  Drafts 
not  infrequently  pass  through  a  number  of  hands, 
serving  as  a  medium  of  exchange  for  merchants 
and  cattle-dealers  at  fairs  or  markets,  go  from 
town  to  town,  and  are  in  circulation  for  weeks, 
even  months,  before  being  finally  transmitted  for 
collection. 

The  smaller  towns  have  no  banks  at  all  ;  even 
some  of  the  important  centres,  Uke  Santa  Marta  and 
Bucaramanga,  have  none.  Where  banking  institu- 
tions do  exist,  a  large  share  of  the  business  is  never- 
theless absorbed  by  private  mercantile  houses,  and 
some  so-called  banks  are  purely  one-man,  one-firm, 
or  one-family  institutions.  These  and  also  the 
majority  of  banks  in  which  the  stock  is  more  widely 
distributed  compete  with  private  firms  in  a  great 
variety  of  commercial  transactions  ;  even  buying, 
selling,  and  exporting  products,  and  speculating 
heavily  in  exchange.  Only  a  few  of  the  banks  are 
conservative,  and  confine  themselves  to  the  strictly 
banking  business  of  receiving  deposits,  loaning  funds, 
and  selling  exchange,  and  even  in  some  of  these 
carefully  managed  institutions  inner  cliques  are  apt 
to  rule  things  their  own  way  and  for  their  own 
benefit.  The  fiduciary  relation  of  the  banker  to 
depositors  and  the  public  has  been  scarcely  recog- 
nized, and  consequently  there  is  as  yet  a  lack  of 
confidence  which  has  hindered  the  development  of 
the  banking  system. 

Only  rudimentary  attempts  at  establishing  savings 
or  mortgage  banks  have  been  made  ;  the  latter  are 
especially  needed  for  the  proper  agricultural  develop- 
ment of  the  country.     Such  capital  as  is  invested  in 


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«       1 

FINANCES   AND  BANKING  87 

the  banking  business  is  almost  entirely  domestic  ; 
with  the  exception  of  an  institution  now  in  process 
of  organization  at  Medellin,  in  which  a  German  syndi- 
cate is  interested,  there  is  no  foreign  capital  in  the 
business,  as  stock  held  by  foreign  merchants  resident 
in  Colombia  and  who  have  there  made  their  money 
can  hardly  be  considered  foreign  capital.  No 
statistics  of  banking  have  been,  so  far  as  I  am 
aware,  compiled  in  Colombia — the  total  amount  of 
capital  engaged  in  banking  cannot  be  definitely 
stated — it  is  probably  between  £1,000,000  and 
£1,200,000,  and  the  deposits  do  not  exceed  those 
figures.  The  statistics  on  the  opposite  page, 
laboriously  compiled  '  from  annual  reports  and 
private  sources  of  information,  will  give  some  idea 
of  a  few  banks  of  various  types  and  character 
throughout   the   country. 

The  time  would  seem  ripe  for  the  establishment  of 
foreign  banks,  or  rather  of  banks  with  foreign  back- 
ing. The  Germans  have  already  started,  and  with 
their  usual  commercial  foresight  they  are  doing  it 
in  the  right  way  to  gain  public  goodwill,  that  is,  in 
co-operation  with  native  capitalists.  Conservative 
banking  is  badly  needed  in  Colombia  and  will  un- 
doubtedly meet  with  large  rewards. 

'  By  Henry  J.  Eder,  banker  at  Cali. 


CHAPTER    VII 

TRAVEL  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

In  the  matter  of  transportation  Colombia  is  still  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  Only  a  few  hundred  miles  of  railroads 
are  in  operation  ;  wagon  roads  are  few  and  far 
between  and  travelled  chiefly  by  ox-carts  ;  the  mule 
roads  are  rough  trails,  often  impassable  in  the  rainy 
season  ;  bridges  are  sorely  needed  in  many  localities  ; 
scarcely  more  than  half  a  dozen  of  the  principal 
rivers  know  the  whistle  of  the  steamboat  ;  many 
sections  of  the  country  can  be  reached  only  by 
dug-out  canoes  or  by  explorers'  trails  through  virgin 
forest.  The  horse  or  saddle  mule  for  travellers,  our 
patient  friend  the  sumpter-mule,  or  occasionally  other 
pack  animals  (ox,  horse,  burro,  man,  or  even  woman), 
for  goods — these  constitute,  first  and  foremost, 
Colombia's  present-day  transportation  system. 

But  if  the  traveller  can  free  his  mind  from  the 
slavery  of  time,  as,  followed  by  his  faithful  page,  he 
journeys  his  leisurely  thirty  miles  a  day  over  moun- 
tains and  through  charming  Andean  valleys,  some- 
times rising  before  dawn  or  riding  by  the  light  of 
the  moon  to  escape  the  midday  blaze  of  the  lowlands, 
stopping  at  primitive  inns  which  seem  to  have  about 
them  a  whiff  from  the  pages  of  Don  Quixote  or 
Gil  Bias,  or  at  still  more  primitive  huts  bordering  on 
the  aboriginal  that  serve  as  customary  shelters  for  the 
wayfarer,    he    feels    a    charm    that    compensates    for 


TRAVEL   AND   TRANSPORTATION     89 

the  deprivation  of  the  swift   trains,   luxurious  sleep- 
ing-cars, and  sybaritic  hostelries  of  modernity. 

But  business,  modern  civilization,  clamours  for 
transportation  facilities.  On  every  side  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country's  natural  resources  is  hindered  by 
lack  of  roads — rich  mines  to  which  machinery  cannot 
be  taken  except  at  frightful  cost,  forests  of  valuable 
timber  too  remote  from  the  seas  or  navigable  rivers 
to  be  available  for  international  trade,  agricultural 
lands  that  could  supply  a  large  share  of  the  world's 
tropical  products,  did  not  the  freights  eat  up  the 
profits — these  lie  fallow  and  unworked.  Dozens  of 
articles  that  the  country  itself  produces,  prime  neces- 
sities like  salt,  sugar,  rice,  flour,  potatoes,  are  im- 
ported from  abroad  because  that  is  cheaper,  despite 
high  duties,  than  transporting  them  from  one  part  of 
the  country  to  another.  Roads  and  railroads  are 
indeed  the  crying  need. 

The  best  way  perhaps  to  impress  upon  the  reader 
the  present  conditions  of  travel  in  Colombia  is  to  take 
him  in  these  pages  on  a  journey  from  north  to  south, 
from  the  Caribbean  Sea  to  the  Ecuadorian  frontier 
and  out  again  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  just  such  a 
trip  as  an  efficient  commercial  traveller  would  make 
through  the  country  ;  and  perhaps  I  may  be  able 
to  throw  out  a  hint  or  two  that  will  be  of  value  to 
the  novice  who  is  planning  a  business  visit  to 
Colombia.' 

We  arrive  on  Colombian  soil  at  either  Cartagena  pr 
Savanilla  (Puerto  Colombia),  the  chief  ports  on  the 
Caribbean,  both  connected  by  rail  with  the  main 
artery  of  trade  in  Colombia,  the  Magdalena  River. 
Both  ports  are  in  very  frequent  communication  with 
Europe,  the  United  States,  and  the  West  Indies,  and 

'  The  explorer  will  have  his  own  ideas ;  but  a  useful  note  of 
warning,  with  valuable  hints,  from  that  experienced  explorer,  Dr. 
Hamilton  Rice,  is  sounded  in  the  July,  1912,  issue  of  the  Bulletin 
of  the  Pan  American  Union,  p.  96. 


90  COLOMBIA 

are  regular  ports  of  call  for  the  Royal  Mail  lines 
from  Southampton  and  New  York,  the  Hamburg 
American  lines  from  New  York  (Atlas  service)  and 
Hamburg,  the  Leyland  and  Harrison  lines  from 
Liverpool,  the  United  Fruit  boats  from  New  York, 
and  the  steamers  of  the  French  Compagnie  Generate 
Transatlantique,  the  Italian  La  Veloce,  and  the 
Spanish  Compahla   Trasatlantica. 

At  Savanilla,  or  more  strictly  speaking  Puerto 
Colombia,  for  the  old  port  and  town  of  Savanilla 
is  at  a  little  distance,  a  pier,  a  mile  long,  constructed 
on  iron  screwpiles,  one  of  the  best  of  its  kind  in  the 
whole  world,  was  built  in  1893  by  the  Barranquilla 
Railway  and  Pier  Company^  an  English  company, 
under  the  supervision  of  that  veteran  of  engineering 
in  Colombia,  Mr.  John  B.  Dougherty.  The  pier,  a 
first-class  modern  structure,  with  four  lines  of  rails  at 
the  head,  can  accommodate  four  large  steamers  at  a 
time.  The  road  to  Barranquilla,  \'j\  miles,  is  a 
single-track  line  covered  in  an  hour's  run  by  three 
trains  daily  each  way.  The  capital  of  the  company 
is  £200,000  and  its  bonded  indebtedness  £100,000. 
Its  operation  has  always  been  profitable,  and  despite 
the  competition  of  the  Cartagena  railroad  it  secures 
nearly  half  the  total  exports  and  imports  (in  value) 
of  Colombia.  In  1905  the  road  carried  76,464  tons  ; 
in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1910,  76,665  tons, 
net  revenue  £21,997;  1911,  91,969  tons,  net 
revenue  £25,668  ;  191 2,  96,000  tons  and  110,000 
passengers. 

Barranquilla,  with  which  the  line  is  connected,  is 
the  principal  river  port  on  the  Magdalena,  and  it  is 
here  that  one  takes  steamer  for  the  long  journey  up 
that  river.  Its  only  rival  is  Calamar,  in  itself  unim- 
portant, but  the  terminus  of  the  competing  railroad 
from  Cartagena.  This  line  (65  miles  long)  and  the 
wharf  at  Cartagena  were  built  by  allied  American  cor- 
porations, under  favourable  concessions,  which  included 


TRAVEL   AND   TRANSPORTATION     91 

control  of  the  wharfage,  Hghterage  and  towing  privi- 
leges in  the  harbour  of  Cartagena  and  a  subsidy  of 
$8,000  a  kilometre.  The  concessions  and  properties 
are  now  owned  by  an  English  compa.ny,T he  Cartagena 
Railway  Company,  Ltd.,  with  a  capital  of  £750,000 
and  a  bonded  debt  of  £600,000.  In  1905  the  road 
carried  34,669  tons  ;  in  19 10,  36,236.  It  will  be 
readily  seen,  from  its  greater  length,  debt,  and  the 
inferiority  of  Calamar,  that  this  railroad  is  at  a  dis- 
advantage in  competing  with  the  Barranquilla  line  for 
the  traffic  from  the  Magdalena  River.  Cartagena, 
however,  is  a  sheltered  harbour,  whereas  Puerto 
Colombia  is  an  open  roadstead  ;  there  is  always 
danger,  too,  that  owing  to  the  rapid  formation  of 
sand-bars  at  the  latter  place  the  magnificent  pier 
may  some  day  become  inaccessible  to  any  but  vessels 
of  light  draught. 

The  commercial  traveller  must  visit  both  Cartagena 
and  Barranquilla,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  little  moment 
to  which  he  goes  first.  Cartagena  is  the  cooler  and 
more  interesting  ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  one  has  to 
wait  for  a  river  steamer,  it  is  preferable  to  do  so 
at  Barranquilla  rather  than  at  Calamar,  where  ac- 
commodations are  of  the  poorest. 

A  little  east  of  Barranquilla  and  accessible  to  it 
by  launches  running  on  the  delta  channels  of  the 
Magdalena  is  the  port  of  Santa  Marta,  an  early  rival 
of  Cartagena,  which  sank  into  utter  commercial 
lethargy  until  recently  revived  by  the  new  banana 
industry  that  has  grown  by  leaps  and  bounds  in  the 
last  ten  years.  Santa  Marta  is  now  regularly  visited 
by  the  steamers  of  the  United  Fruit  Company  and 
its  subsidiary,  the  Elders  and  Fyffes  line,  which  runs 
to  Liverpool,  and  by  the  Hamburg  American  boats. 
The  bananas  and  other  local  products  are  brought 
to  the  sea  by  the  Santa  Marta  Railway,  which 
operates  58  miles  of  track,  including  short 
branches  to  tap  banana  sections,  and  extends  to  the 


92  COLOMBIA 

River  Fundacion.  The  line  is  run  by  an  English 
company,  The  Santa  Maria  Railway  Company y  Ltd., 
which  has  issued  £200,000  ordinary  shares,  £159,170 
7  per  cent,  preferred  shares,  and  £147,200  6  per 
cent,  debentures.  Its  traffic  in  1905  was  29,442 
tons,  gross  receipts  in  1909,  £69,823,  net  £18,806  ; 
1 910,  gross  £94,590,  net  £18,089  ;  for  the  nine 
months  ending  September  30,  191 1,  gross,  £84,100, 
net  £10,514.  The  steady  increase  in  business  has 
been  due  to  the  growth  of  the  banana  industry.  It 
was  originally  projected  to  extend  to  the  Magdalena, 
at  the  town  of  Banco,  near  where  the  river  Cesar 
flows  into  the  great  stream,  a  total  distance  from 
Santa  Marta  of  about  135  miles,  all  of  which  has 
been  surveyed.  The  original  concession  was  granted 
in  1 8  8 1  and  the  early  days  of  the  road  were  full  of 
misfortunes  ;  cyclones,  revolutions,  financial  crises 
destroyed  its  property  or  delayed  its  progress  ;  the 
policy  of  the  Government  towards  it  has  been  a 
shifting  one,  now  inclined  to  listen  to  the  clamours 
of  the  local  population,  again  reluctant  to  have  the 
line  pushed  to  completion  for  fear  of  creating  a 
ruinous  competition  to  the  Cartagena  and  Barran- 
quilla  companies  and  of  becoming  obligated  to  pay 
the  large  subsidies  to  which  the  enterprise  is  en- 
titled for  every  kilometre  opened  to  traffic.  More- 
over, various  controversies  have  arisen  between  the 
company  and  the  Government,  still  pending  unsettled, 
chief  among  which  is  as  to  whether  a  provision  in 
the  original  concession  by  which  the  Government 
has  the  right  to  purchase  the  completed  road  for 
£400,000  has  been  impliedly  repealed  by  subsequent 
contracts  or  not.  Until  an  explicit  declaration  is 
obtained  on  this  point,  it  would  be  folly  for  the  com- 
pany to  spend  a  million  pounds  or  so,  the  estimated 
cost  of  the  completed  road,  in  order  to  turn  it  over  to 
the  nation  at  a  future  date  at  less  than  half  the  cost. 
Arrived   at   the    Magdalena   River   by   any   of   the 


TRAVEL   AND   TRANSPORTATION     93 

routes  mentioned,  we  embark  on  one  of  the  flat- 
bottomed,  three-  to  five-foot  draught  stern-wheeler 
steamers  of  the  Mississippi  River  type,  which  com- 
pose the  fleets  of  the  steamship  combination  effected 
a  few  years  ago  by  the  alliance  of  the  Colombian 
Navigation  Company,  Ltd.,  the  Magdalena  River 
Steamboat  Company,  Ltd.,  and  the  Empresa  Colom- 
biana  de  Navegacion  Fluvial,  or  we  may  favour  one 
of  the  smaller  rival  companies. »  The  boats  vary 
greatly  in  size,  speed,  finish,  and  conveniences.  The 
best  are  the  newer  boats  which  are  used  on  the 
weekly  mail  express  service  ;  they  are  the  largest 
and  built  to  be  the  speediest  ;  but  the  race  is  not 
always  to  the  swift,  and  often  in  the  dry  season, 
when  the  river  runs  low,  one  makes  better  time 
in  the  smaller  boats,  which  can  navigate  when  the 
large  vessel  is  fast  on  a  sandbank  for  days  at  a  time 
waiting  for  a  rise.  During  an  extremely  dry  spell 
one  may  have  to  wait  weeks.  In  the  early 
part  of  1 9 1 2  nearly  a  month  elapsed  without  a 
steamer  getting  up  the  river.  Normally  it  takes 
about  nine  or  ten  days  upstream  to  reach  La  Dorada, 
the  head  of  navigation  on  the  lower  river,  distant 
6oo  miles  from  Barranquilla.  Innumerable  obstacles 
and  delays  account  for  the  length  of  the  journey. 
The  current  is  about  three  miles  an  hour,  in  some 
places  even  five  or  six  ;  only  in  the  first  part  of  the 
trip  can  the  boats  travel  at  night,  for  as  one  goes 
upstream,  what  with  the  shifting  channel,  varying 
after  every  freshet,  the  sand-bars  and  shallows  during 
the  dry  season  and  the  logs  and  other  obstructions 
floated  down  at  high  water,  it  becomes  too  hazardous 
to  risk  navigation  after  dark.  A  great  deal  of  time, 
too,  is  wasted,  stops  of  an  hour  or  more  being  fre- 
quently made  for  the  purpose  of  taking  on  fuel.  The 
boats  burn  wood,  which  is  piled  up  in  readiness,  cut 

'  These  are  the  Compania  Antioquena,  the  Compania  Rosa  Perez, 
and  the  Hanseatica. 


94  COLOMBIA 

into  the  proper  lengtlis,  at  frequent  landings  on  the  river 
banks  :  the  loading  is  entirely  by  hand  and  conducted 
leisurely  ;  much  longer  stops  are  also  made  at  the 
various  "  ports  " — often  merely  a  convenient  moor- 
ing-place  with  a  hut  or  two  and  corrugated  iron  sheds 
— where  passengers  and  freight  are  taken  on  or  off. 
Downstream,  the  current  aiding,  the  trip  is  very  much 
shorter,  usually  five  or  six  days  if  all's  well,  and 
consequently  far  pleasanter,  as  the  long  up-river 
journey,  in  spite  of  the  charm  of  the  scenery,  the 
diversity  of  vegetation  and  of  animal  life,  and  the 
daily  incidents  at  the  little  villages,  palls  on  all  but 
the  most  enthusiastic  nature-lovers,  who  alone  find 
sufficient  compensation  for  the  many  discomforts.  A 
stifling  heat  often  prevails,  the  mosquitoes  are  a  pest, 
the  food  bad  ;  save  on  the  newest  boats,  dirt  pre- 
vails ;  the  lavatories  especially  are  unspeakable,  and 
impress  one  forcibly  with  the  truth  of  the  remarks  of 
the  innkeeper  in  Octave  Mirbean's  La  X-628  as  to 
what  "  nous   Latins,  nous  ne  savons  pas." 

The  traveller  should  take  his  own  cot  or  hammock 
and  linen  and  a  blanket  or  rug,  for  it  is  wise  to  put 
up  with  the  extra  heat  in  order  to  guard  one's  self 
against  the  chilling  dampness  which  at  night  and 
early  morning  arises  from  the  water.  A  mosquito 
bar  is  indispensable  both  for  comfort  and  health, 
and  a  gauze  head-net  and  gloves  for  evening  wear 
are  advisable  as  additional  safeguards  against  the 
plaguy  insects.  One's  own  supply  of  ice  and  bottled 
waters  should  be  laid  in  before  sailing,  and  it  is 
well  also  to  help  out  the  often  unpalatable  and 
badly  cooked  food  with  canned  goods  and  delicacies. 
These  things  can  be  purchased  at  Barranquilla  or 
Cartagena  ;  the  cot  and  mosquito  bars  as  well  as 
your  other  travelling  equipment  you  had  better  buy 
at  home. 

While  on  this  subject,  it  may  be  well  to  mention 
what    the    traveller    bound    for    a    long    journey    in 


TRAVEL   AND   TRANSPORTATION     95 

Colombia  should  take  ;  namely,  both  light  and  heavy 
clothing  and  underwear,  as  he  will  encounter  ex- 
tremes of  climate  ;  a  saddle  of  small  girth,  as  the 
horses  are  small  ;  the  cot,  mosquito  bars,  and 
blankets  already  mentioned — the  best  mosquito 
canopy  is  the  kind  that  closes  like  an  umbrella,  and 
to  inspect  it  after  retiring  an  electric  pocket-lamp 
is  handy  ;  the  cot  should  be  a  light,  folding  one 
(some  experienced  travellers  prefer  a  hammock  or 
an  air  mattress)  ;  one's  kit  should  also  include  high 
gaiters,  reaching  above  the  knee,  and  a  poncho — a 
large  waterproofed  sheet  with  a  hole  in  the  middle 
for  the  head,  which  buttons  tightly  around  the  neck, 
hangs  from  the  shoulders  like  a  cape,  protects  both 
rider  and  horse  from  torrential  rains,  and  when  not 
in  use  is  conveniently  strapped  to  the  saddle.  The 
medicine  chest  for  ordinary  travel  need  only  contain 
quinine  pills  (five  grains  should  be  taken  every  morn- 
ing after  breakfast  or  ten  grains  twice  a  week,  in 
malarial  districts),  bismuth,  or  sun  cholera  mixture, 
calomel  tablets,  some  essential  oil,  like  oil  of  lavender, 
boric  acid  for  prickly  heat,  a  little  ammonia,  alcohol, 
vaseline.  With  a  few  simple  precautions  in  the 
matter  of  food  and  drink,  avoiding  mosquitoes  and 
exposure  to  sudden  cold  or  wet,  and  by  generally 
following  the  dictates  of  a  prudent  common  sense,  the 
traveller  need  have  no  fear  for  his  health  in  Colombia. 
Thus  equipped,  the  traveller  is  ready  to  leave 
the  Magdalena  boat  at  any  of  the  landing-places,  set 
out  on  a  horseback  journey  to  some  interior  point, 
or  embark  on  the  smaller  steamers  or  launches  which 
navigate  the  tributaries  of  the  Magdalena — tributaries 
leading  to  various  more  or  less  important  parts  of  the 
country,  e.g.,  at  Banco  for  the  River  Cesar  and  the 
fertile  but  little  developed  Dupar  Valley  ;  at  Cauca, 
near  the  old  town  of  Mompox,  for  the  Cauca  and 
Nechi  boats,  serving  a  rich  mining  section  (the 
Magdalena    boats    usually    take    advantage    of    the 


96  COLOMBIA 

superior  navigation  afforded,  and  sail  for  a  day  on 
the  Cauca,  passing  the  town  of  Magangue  and  rejoin- 
ing the  main  stream  further  south  by  another  brazo 
or  arm)  ;  at  Nare  for  Ocafia,  at  Bodega  Central 
for  the  River  Lebrija  en  route  to  Bucaramanga, 
etc.  On  these  smaller  boats,  it  is  needless  to  say, 
the   discomforts   are   magnified. 

It  is  not  till  we  reach  Puerto  Berrio,  500 
miles  from  Barranquilla,  that  we  again  see  a  loco- 
motive. Here  begins  the  important  Antioquia  rail- 
road to  Medellin,  which  will  probably  be  completed, 
except  the  part  crossing  the  summit  of  the  range, 
before  this  book  is  published.  The  concession  and 
the  management  are  directly  in  the  hands  of  the 
Departmental  Government  ;  the  road  to-day  (after 
the  usual  Colombian  railroad  history  of  delays,  dis- 
appointm.ents,  engineering  difficulties,  and  even  liti- 
gation i)  is  one  of  the  best  and  best  run  in  the 
country,  and  offers  a  striking  instance  of  what  can- 
he  done  by  the  Colombians  if  they  will  only  apply 
themselves,  in  a  spirit  of  co-operation,  to  the  enter- 
prise in  hand.  The  completed  road  will  be  about 
120  miles  in  length.  As  it  taps  one  of  the  most 
populous  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  thriving, 
energetic,  and  industrious  sections  in  the  whole 
country,  its  financial  future  seems  assured,  though 
the  freight  being  actually  carried  to-day  is  small  ; 
in  1905  only  11,084  tons  were  carried;  in  191 1, 
20,544  tons.  The  great  engineering  problem  has 
been  at  La  Quiebra,  and  various  solutions,  such  as 
switchbacks  and  cog-rails,  were  proposed,  but  it  has 
been  finally  decided,  I  am  informed,  to  eventually 
tunnel    through    the    mountain    obstruction,    and    for 

'  In  1892,  a  contract  was  entered  into  with  the  EngHsh  firm  of 
Punchard,  McTaggart,  Louther  &  Co.,  but  being  rescinded  the 
following  year  by  the  Government,  gave  rise  to  a  claim  for  damages, 
which  was  finally  settled  by  arbitration,  heavy  damages  being 
awarded  to  the  firm. 


STREET   IX    BARRANQUILLA. 


THE    PORT   OF    HARRANQTILLA. 


MAGUALEXA    RIVER    STEAMERS. 


To  face  p.  96. 


TRAVEL   AND   TRANSPORTATION     97 

the  present  to  build  a  good  road  (i8  miles)  for  carts, 
automobiles,    and   traction   engines. 

A  3 -foot  gauge  railroad  is  also  in  process  of 
construction  from  Medellin  through  Amaga  to  the 
Cauca  River,  a  distance  of  52  miles,  of  which  19  are 
built,  to  Caldas.  In  the  first  six  months  of  191 2  it 
carried  333,340  passengers,  with  gross  receipts  there- 
from of  $40,000.  The  company  is  entirely  Colom- 
bian, with  a  subscribed  capital  of  one  million  dollars, 
of  which  one-half  has  been  paid  in.  It  has  no  bonded 
debt  or  encumbrances.  A  number  of  fairly  good 
cart-roads  and  bridle -tracks  lead  out  from  Medellin 
to  the  surrounding  country  ;  on  one  of  these  even  a 
regular  auto  service  has  been  established  ;  the  cart- 
roads,  however,  are  short,  and  the  mule-trails,  too 
(the  most  travelled  is  the  "  royal  highway  "  south  to 
Manizales  and  the  Cauca  Valley),  soon  degenerate 
into  that  usual  type  of  Colombian  road  whose  praises 
I  am  reserving  until  the  reader  has  left  the  Magda- 
lena  behind  him  for  good  and  all. 

Let  us,  then,  imagine  ourselves  back  on  the 
Magdalena,  and  arriving,  a  day  after  leaving  Puerto 
Berrio,  at  La  Dorada,  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
lower  river.  We  have  come  600  miles  from  Barran- 
quilla,  and  still  a  few  days'  travel  and  many  changes 
are  ahead  of  us  before  we  reach  Bogota,  the  capital. 
First  comes  the  Dorada  Railway,  built  to  circumvent 
the  rapids  which  render  dangerous  further  navigation 
upstream.  This  line  was  built  by  the  English  Dorada 
Railway  Company,  and  runs  past  a  little  beyond 
Honda,  an  important  river  port,  to  a  point  called 
Arranca  Plumas  (22  miles),  whence  the  steamers 
can  sail  with  safety  on  the  upper  Magdalena.  As 
all  the  freight  and  passengers  from  the  Bogota 
plateau  and  from  the  upper  Magdalena  section  have 
to  pass  on  this  railroad,  and  much  traffic  is  gained 
also  from  Manizales  and  across  the  Quindio,  this 
road,  charging  high  freights  in  the  bargain,  has  had 

8 


98  COLOMBIA 

no  difficulty  in  showing  a  profit,  although  at  one 
time  the  former  Cartagena  steamboat  line,  as  part 
of  a  trade  war,  sent  its  steamers  beyond  La  Dorada 
and  deprived  the  railroad  of  considerable  freight. 
The  railroad  is  now  owned  by  the  Dorada  Extension 
Railway,  Ltd.,  which  operates  an  extension  of  51 
miles  as  far  as  Ambalema,  another  town  of  some 
importance  on  the  Magdalena,  in  the  heart  of  a 
rich  agricultural  section,  and  is  intended  to  eventu- 
ally connect  with  the  Girardot  Railway,  of  which 
we  shall  soon  speak.  The  capital  of  the  combined 
Dorada  companies  is  £350,000,  and  their  outstanding 
bonded  indebtedness  is  £350,000.  In  1905  the 
traffic  of  the  original  road  (Honda  to  La  Dorada) 
was  48,145  tons;    in   1910,   50,764  tons. 

At  Honda  you  have  a  choice  of  two  ways  to 
Bogota  ;  you  can  take  the  mule-road,  and  if  the 
season  is  favourable  and  the  road  is  reported  to  be 
in  good  condition,  it  is  advisable  to  do  so,  for  you 
view  magnificent  scenery,  the  inns  are  the  most  com- 
fortable in  Colombia,  and  you  get  away  the  sooner 
from  the  intense  heat  of  the  valley  and  ever-present 
possibility  of  malaria  or  other  fevers  into  the  refresh- 
ing coolness  of  the  Andes  ;  or  you  can  take  a  steamer 
to  Girardot,  whence  a  railroad,  82  miles  long,  takes 
you  to  the  Sabana  of  Bogota.  The  road  was  com- 
pleted in  1909,  at  last  fulfilling  the  long  cherished 
hope  of  the  Bogotanos  for  a  route  to  the  sea  sans 
mule  or  horse.  One  enthusiastic  writer,  in  a  serious 
official  publication,  spoke  of  the  inauguration  of  the 
line  as  "  the  event  of  most  transcendental  import- 
ance in  our  national  life  since  the  Independence." 
But  the  desired  practical  mercantile  results  have  not 
been  produced  :  there  has  been  no  general  reduction 
of  freight  rates  ;  the  road  is  being  run  at  a  loss  ;, 
it  is  mortgaged  far  beyond  its  actual  value,  there 
being  four  series  of  mortgage  bonds  aggregating 
£1^480,000  ;     the    interest    on    the    first,    third,    and 


TRAVEL   AND   TRANSPORTATION     99 

fourth  mortgages  is  guaranteed  by  the  Government. 
The  second  mortgage  debenture  holders  have  recently 
obtained  the  appointment  of  a  Receiver  in  the 
English  Courts.  Landslides  have  been  frequent,  due 
largely  to  errors,  waste,  and  false  economies  in  con- 
struction, which  have  made  the  cost  of  maintenance 
relatively  enormous,  while  the  gross  receipts  are 
small — $297,291.07  in  1910,  only  some  12,000  tons 
of  freight  being  carried,  more  than  half  the  traffic 
still  going  by  way  of  the  old  Honda  mule -trail  and 
by  the  Camboa  cart-road,  which  also  connects  the 
Sabana  with  the  Magdalena.  To  properly  recon- 
struct and  equip  the  line,  it  is  estimated  that  an 
additional  £150,000  at  least  is  required.  The  worst 
feature  is  that  the  road  is  a  narrow  gauge,  3 -foot 
road,  whilst  the  Sabana  line  which  it  joins  at  Facata- 
tiva  is  3  feet  6  inches  wide.  Blundering,  inexcusable 
lack  of  foresight  !  The  owner  is  the  Colombian 
National  Railway  Company,  Ltd.,  of  London,  with 
a  capital  stock  of  £900,000,  one -third  of  which  is 
held  by  the  Colombian  Government  itself,  received 
as  a  part  of  the  consideration  for  its  guarantee 
of  interest  on  the  bonds.  The  engineering  difficulties 
were  considerable  but  not  extraordinary  :  the  highest 
grade  is  4  per  cent,  the  maximum  altitude  reached 
a  little  under  9,000  feet  (2,729  metres),  Girardot 
being  at  an  altitude  of  1,056  feet  above  sea-level. 
Facatativa,  on  the  tableland  of  Bogota,  is  con- 
nected with  that  city  by  the  Sabana  Railway  (25 
miles),  one  of  the  three  which  form  the  network  of 
lines  on  the  Cundinamarcan  plateau  ;  the  other  two 
are  the  Northern  {del  Norte)  and  Southern  {del 
Sur),  and  adequately  supply  the  transportation  needs 
of  that  populous  section.  These  railroads,  situated 
high  up  in  the  Andes,  are  remarkable  as  having  been 
built  before  the  Sabana  was  connected  with  the 
Magdalena  :  the  rails  and  heavy  rolling  stock  were 
transported  almost  entirely  by  mules.     The  cost  can 


100  COLOMBIA 

be  imagined — the  transportation  alone  of  each  loco- 
motive cost  seven  to  ten  thousand  dollars.  Of  these 
three  roads  the  Government  owns  outright  the  Sur 
(15  miles),  which  it  purchased  in  1905,  a  year 
prior  to  its  completion,  for  approximately  £60,000 
($30,000,000  p  m),  and  holds  practically  all  the 
capita]  stock  in  the  Sabana  Company  ;  the  Norte 
alone  (40  miles)  is  owned  and  operated  by  a  private 
company,  The  Colombian  Northern  Railway  Com- 
pany, Ltd.  The  projected  extension  of  its  road  to 
Chiquinquira,  where  it  will  eventually  connect  with 
the  Puerto  Wilches  and  Bucaramanga  line,  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  Colombian  Central  Railway  Com- 
pany, Ltd.  (capital,  £300,000).  It  is  almost  need- 
less to  say  that  the  stock  capitalization  of  many  of 
these  Colombian  roads  largely  represents  promoters' 
interests  and  not  actual  cash  invested,  and  that  the 
bond  issues  have  been  placed  at  very  large  initial 
discounts.  The  Sabana  railroad  is  mortgaged  by 
the  Government  for  a  bonded  loan  of  an  authorized 
total  of  £300,000,  but  of  which,  according  to  the 
latest  information  I  have  at  hand,  only  £187,000 
par  value  of  bonds  had  been  placed.  The  Sur,  after 
its  purchase  by  the  Government,  was  transferred  to 
an  English  Company,  The  Colombian  Southern 
Railway,  ,  Ltd.,  but  the  sale  was  subsequently 
rescinded.  The  traffic  of  the  road  in  1905  was 
13,200  tons  ;  in  1908,  21,600  tons,  84,190  passen- 
gers, and  total  gross  receipts  $54,078.77.  The 
Norte  makes  a  better  showing  :  1905,  18,000  tons  ; 
1908,  376,426  passengers  (statistics  of  freight  show 
only  number  of  packages,  not  weights)  ;  gross  receipts 
;$2  23,8oi  .79,  four  times  those  of  the  Sur,  although 
the  road  is  only  twice  as  long  :  it  traverses  a  more 
populous  section,  and  carries  the  coal  and  salt  from 
the  mines  at  Zipaquira  and  Nemocon.  The  Sabana 
railroad,  with  only  25  miles,  does  even  better  :  its 
business   in    1905   was    55,244   tons  ;    in    1908   over 


TRAVEL   AND   TRANSPORTATION     101 

380,000  passengers,  and  total  gross  receipts 
$228,181.99. 

These  railroads,  though  hard  to  build,  are  easy  of 
upkeep  and  operation  :  the  grades  are  slight  ; 
abundant  coal  is  ready  at  hand  ;  there  is  no  fear  of 
the  disastrous  freshets  and  landslides  that  play  havoc 
with  the  lines  that  climb  the  Andean  slopes  ;  and 
it  must  be  said  in  justice  that  they  give  the  public 
fair  service,  and  at  rates  that  are  if  anything  in  some 
schedules  too  low.  Passenger  rates,  for  instance, 
range  from  about  i  cent  (3rd  class)  to  3  cents 
(ist  class)  a  mile  ;  freight  rates,  however,  are  by 
the  ton,   from   7   cents  to   30  cents  a  mile. 

Before  again  setting  out  from  Bogota,  let  us  stop 
to  count  the  changes  that  we,  and  our  baggage,  and 
our  merchandise  have  made  to  get  here — from  ocean- 
steamer  to  train,  train  to  river-steamer,  again  to 
train,  once  more  to  river-steamer,  thence  to  train, 
and  finally  to  still  another  train.  At  least  seven 
times,  then  (assuming,  contrary  to  fact,  that  it  be 
carried  direct  from  boat  to  car  and  car  to  boat), 
does  freight  have  to  be  handled  to  reach  its  destina- 
tion. The  cost?  Naturally,  stupendous.  From 
ocean  to  capital  600  miles,  roughly  speaking, 
from  thirty  to  sixty  dollars  a  ton,  depending  on  the 
class  of  merchandise. 

The  Sabana  of  Bogota,  with  the  usual  greater 
liberality  that  a  capital  accords  to  its  environs  at 
the  expense  of  remoter  regions,  is  well  supplied 
with  roads — some  are  excellent  examples  of  road- 
making — the  more  part  good  in  the  dry,  difficult  in 
the  rainy,  season,  for  which  reason  perhaps  it  is 
that  the  ox -cart  prevails  ;  horses  and  mules  as 
draught  animals  have  not  been  fully  naturalized  even 
in  this,  the  most  civilized  district  of  our  country. 
Arrived  at  the  terminus  of  the  Northern  Railway,  we 
can  travel,  too,  on  the  only  good  road  of  any  con- 
siderable   lenofth    that    Colombia    boasts — the    Gran 


102  COLOMBIA 

Car  ret  era  Central  del  Norte,  the  Great  Central  Cart- 
road  of  the  North,  which  stretches  out  northwards, 
well  graded,  well  laid,  and,  until  very  recently  at 
least,  well  maintained,  through  the  populous  towns 
of  the  departments  of  Boyaca  and  Cundinamarca, 
for  a  distance  of  nearly  200  miles.  This  high- 
way, like  many  of  the  railroads  of  which  we  have 
been  speaking,  owes  much  to  the  administration 
of  General  Reyes,  who,  as  President,  had  the  pleasure 
of  traversing  it  soon  after  its  completion  in  an 
automobile,  going  from  Bogota  to  Santa  Rosa  in 
five  hours.  A  regular  motor-bus  service  was  soon 
after   inaugurated   between   those   two    places. 

Steeply  up  and  steeply  down,  over  the  cross 
ridges  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  but  no  longer 
over  a  good  road,  our  mules  can  reach  Bucaramanga, 
the  centre  of  an  important  coffee  district,  whose 
inhabitants  are  longing  with  eager  hopes  for  the 
completion  of  a  railroad  from  the  Magdalena,  start- 
ing at  a  point  called  Puerto  Wilches.  Judging  by 
the  history  of  other  railways  in  Colombia  and  by  the 
difficulties,  some  legal,  some  political,  raised  by  the 
Government  (now  happily  on  the  point  of  settle- 
ment), to  say  nothing  of  the  usual  engineering 
problems  and  other  troubles  of  Andine  construction, 
which  have  already  harassed  the  concessionaire,  the 
Great  Central  Northern  Railway  Company,  Ltd.,  of 
London,  it  may  be  many  a  weary  year  before  the 
townspeople  of  Bucaramanga  can  desert  their  mules 
and  the  boats  on  the  River  Lebrija,  which  they  now 
use  for  descent  to  the  Magdalena.  The  company 
is  organized  with  a  capital  stock  of  £495,000,  prac- 
tically all  promoters'  shares,  of  which  £50,000  were 
assigned  to  the  Government  ;  it  has  so  far  completed 
some  I2|  miles  of  track,  which  is  mortgaged  along 
with  the  concession  and  other  property  for  bond 
issues  of  £506,760,  interest  on  some  of  which  is 
guaranteed    by    the    Government.      The    concession 


TRAVEL   AND   TRANSPORTATION     103 

includes  the  privilege,  which  one  day  will  be  most 
valuable,  of  prolonging  the  road  from  Bucaramanga 
to  connect  with  the  Ferrocarril  del  Norte. 

North-eastward,    a    four    or    five    days'    hard    ride 
from    Bucaramanga,    lies    Cticuta,    where    we    meet 
with  the  phenomenon  of  a  city  that  has  not  sought 
its  outlet  via  the  Magdalena,   but  is  in  communica- 
tion with  the  outer  world  through  Lake  Maracaibo  : 
the  old  route  was  by  a  mule -road  to  the  River  Zulia, 
whose  waters,  navigable  for  light -draught  steamers, 
flow   into    the    Catatumbo,    a    Venezuelan    river,    and 
thence  into  the  so-called  lake — really  a  deep  sea-gulf 
— of  Maracaibo.     At  the  Catatumbo  passengers  and 
freight     are     transferred     to     larger     boats     which 
transfer  to  ocean-steamers  at  the  port  of  Maracaibo. 
The  voyage  from  the  Zulia,  at  Puerto  Villamizar,  to 
Maracaibo    usually    takes    about    three    days.       The 
distance    from    Cdcuta    to    the    Zulia    River    by    the 
old     road     was     only     about     35     miles,     and     rail- 
road    connection     was     established     as     early,     for 
Colombia,  as  1888.     Later  the  same  company,  which 
is   made   up   entirely   of   local   capital   and  in   which 
the  municipality  of  Cucuta  is  owner  of  a  one-third 
interest,    constructed    a    branch    to     the    Venezuelan 
frontier     10    miles    long,    making     the     total    mile- 
age    47     miles.      In     spite     of     adverse     conditions 
created    by    the    building    of    a    nearby    railroad    in 
Venezuela,    which    diverted    considerable    traffic,    and 
by  the  unfavourable,  at  times  hostile  and  prohibitive, 
attitude     of     the     Venezuelan     Government     towards 
Colombian  trade,  the  company  has  managed  to  hold 
its    own    financially,    has    paid    dividends,    and    has 
reduced  its   bonded   indebtedness  from   £120,000  to 
£57,300.      The    traffic    in    1905    was    13,500    tons, 
in    191 1,    20,722    tons. 

At  the  time  of  writing,  Cticuta  is  undergoing  a 
rather  severe  financial  crisis,  but  the  efi"ect  on  the 
railroad  is  only  temporary  ;    a  more  severe  menace, 


104  COLOMBIA 

however,  is  the  project,  advanced  as  much  from 
patriotic  and  political  motives  as  from  financial,  to 
construct  a  road  from  Ciicuta,  through  or  with  a 
branch  to  Ocaiia,  to  the  lower  Magdalena  at 
Tamalameque. 

It  is  a  long  detour  we  have  taken.  Let  us  hurry 
back — a  privilege  the  printed  page  only,  not  the 
actual  facts,  can  extend  the  traveller — to  Girardot, 
to  wend  our  way  to  the  south. 

We  have  a  choice  of  two  routes — to  the  luxury- 
lovers  a  choice  of  two  evils.  Steam  navigation  as 
far  as  Neiva,  not  very  regular  as  the  river  is  nowi 
become  increasingly  difficult,  is  provided  by  the  same 
steamship  combine  that  controls  the  traffic  on  the 
lower  Magdalena  ;  '  and  we  can  go  still  a  little 
farther  up  the  river  in  a  champan.  The  typical 
champan^  characteristic  of  the  Magdalena  and  not 
yet  entirely  superseded  even  where  it  meets  the  com- 
petition of  steam,  is  really  a  large  stoutly  built  raft, 
with  its  central  part  covered  by  an  arch  of  palm 
leaves  thatched  on  bent  bamboos.  It  is  propelled 
by  poling  ;  the  pilots  or  bogus  are  skilled  in  their 
knowledge  of  the  river,  taking  advantage  of  the  most 
favourable  currents  ;  when  going  against  the  stream 
they  will  usually  cling  to  the  shore,  where  the  rush 
of  water  is  not  so  swift.  The  embarkation  bestrided 
by  the  steadily  working  bogas  often  chanting  their 
own  rude  poetry  in  rhythmical  cadences,  and  thrown 
in  bold  relief  against  the  dense  riotous  vegetation 
of  the  river-bank,  presents  a  picturesque  scene  that 
enchants  both  eye  and  ear. 

But  beauty  is  not  comfort  :  travelling  for  a  few 
days  on  a  champan,  it  will  be  readily  conceived,  is 
not  the  height  of  luxury.  The  traveller  is  glad  to 
disembark  and  betake  himself  to  a  saddle,  however 
execrable  the  road.  The  road  to  Popayan  is  an 
old  one,  dating  from  the  days  of  the  Spaniards  and 
'  The  Perez  Rosa  line  has  also  recently  put  a  boat  in  operation. 


TRAVEL   AND   TRANSPORTATION     105 

the  Indians,  and  has  scarcely  been  improved.  The 
Central  Cordillera  is  crossed  at  the  Paramo  de 
Guanacas,  then  one  goes  through  the  Paramo  de 
Coconucos  on  to  Popayan  :  the  journey  from  Neiva 
usually  consumes  about   seven  to  ten  days. 

The  better  route  is  to  go  from  Girardot  to  Ibague, 
thence  crossing  the  Central  Cordillera  by  the  famous 
Quindio  Pass  and  descending  to  the  Cauca  Valley 
at  Cartago.  This  route  yields  perhaps  the  most 
interesting  variety  of  climate  and  of  scenery  in  all 
Colombia  :  first  comes  the  level  stretch  of  hot 
llanos,  vast  cattle  plains,  of  the  Magdalena  Valley  : 
then  we  rise  easily  to  the  clean,  picturesquely  situated 
town  of  Ibague,  to  which  place  it  is  planned  to 
lay  rails — there  are  some  1 5  miles  already  down 
{Ferrocarril  del  Tolima,  recently  purchased  by  the 
Government) — from  Girardot.  Soon  after  leaving 
Ibague  on  our  mules  we  enter  the  Quindio  road, 
whose  bad  name,  inherited  from  the  past,  is  to-day 
not  deserved  :  it  compares  favourably  with  other 
mule-roads  in  Colombia,  and,  if  one  is  travelling  in 
the  dry  season,  nothing  can  be  more  delightful  than 
the  constantly  varying  scenery  encountered  ;  here, 
dipping  down  into  a  delightful  little  valley,  formed 
by  a  sparkling  rivulet  whose  banks  are  edged  with 
cane,  bamboo,  and  tropical  trees,  interwreathed  with 
twining  vines  ;  there,  circling  a  mountain-side  and 
looking  across  at  a  vast  amphitheatre  where  the 
striking  vegetation,  in  wild  profusion,  is  the  gigantic 
wax -palm,  that  towers  sometimes  to  a  height  of 
100  feet  ;  then  reaching  the  level  of  the  oak 
and  other  trees  of  the  temperate  zone,  or  still 
higher,  at  an  altitude  of  10,000  or  11,000  feet, 
the  paramos,  bare  of  all  vegetation  save  low  shrubs, 
which  might  be  desolate  were  it  not  for  the  magni- 
ficent mountain  scenery,  with  the  occasional  view  of 
the  glorious  snow-peaks  of  the  Central  Cordillera. 

At  times  the  road  is  poor  :    now  and  then,  cut  into 


106  COLOMBIA 

the  solid  rock  of  the  mountain -side,  towering  sheer 
hundreds  of  feet  above  you,  while  a  precipice  yawns 
threateningly  on  the  other  side,  it  may  narrow  down 
to  a  scant  yard  or  two  in  width  ;  it  may,  for  a  short 
distance,  climb  at  an  angle  of  almost  forty-five 
degrees,  with  the  roughest  cobble  paving  for 
security  against  the  mules  slipping  ;  or  in  a  stretch 
of  alluvial  soil,  the  ruts  worn  by  the  constant  tread 
of  the  animals  in  the  same  spot  have  worn  deep 
narrow  trenches,  characteristic  of  Andean  roads, 
against  the  sides  of  which  one's  knees  will  knock 
roughly  if  constant  vigilance  be  not  exercised  ; 
worse  yet,  these  trenches  will  not  be  continuous,  but 
will  be  interrupted  by  mounds  over  which  the  mules 
have  continually  stepped,  sinking  the  road-bed  deeper 
and  deeper  by  the  iterated  stamping  of  their  hoofs  in 
the  same  hollow,  till  deep  excavations  are  formed, 
which  in  the  rainy  reason  are  pools  filled  with  the 
most  appalling  mud.  Such  is  a  fair  picture 
applicable  to  many  a  stretch  of  so-called  road  in 
Colombia. 

The  "  hotel  accommodations  "  on  the  way  are 
poor,  of  course  ;  one  stops  at  the  usual  shanty  and 
takes  such  fare  as  one  can  get,  a  sancocho  or  arepas, 
eked  out  with  the  foods  prudentially  brought  along. 
It  is  in  such  passes  as  the  Quindio,  too,  when  one 
reaches  the  paramos,  thousands  of  feet  in  altitude 
and  far  above  the  clouds,  that  one  experiences  the 
rigorous  cold  of  the  tropics.  The  temperature  at 
night  is  nearly  always  below  forty  degrees  ;  occa- 
sionally it  drops  to  freezing-point,  and  one  feels  it 
all  the  more  after  a  sojourn  in  the  hot  lowlands. 
No  amount  of  clothing  then  seems  adequate. 
Travellers  will  remember  the  bitter  cold  nights 
they  have  passed  in  the  paramos.  Although  I  have 
attempted  in  this  book  to  eliminate  those  merely 
personal  incidents  that,  lacking  the  master's  touch, 
render  so  many  books  of  travel  wearisome,  I  cannot 


IBAGUE   IN   THE   DISTANCE. 
Quindfo  road  scenes. 


To  face  p,  io6. 


TRAVEL   AND   TRANSPORTATION     107 

refrain  from  mentioning  my  night's  lodging  in  the 
Quindio  one  New  Year's  Eve,  because  it  is  in  some 
respects  typical  of  many  of  the  shanties  that  do  duty 
for  inns  along  Colombian  highways.  The  little  hut 
was  one  of  the  well-known  stopping-places  on  the 
trail.  I  had  the  good  fortune  to  secure  a  room  to 
myself,  just  big  enough  to  contain  my  cot,  my  "  boy  " 
stretching  himself  out  on  the  threshold.  In  the 
corner  was  a  bundle  of  ill-smelling  hides,  and  sus- 
pended from  the  low  ceiling  were  ropes  of  dried 
meat,  which  dangled  a  few  inches  above  the  cot, 
so  that  every  time  I  raised  my  head  I  felt  a  greasy 
swipe.  And  the  bitter  cold  !  At  least,  it  felt  cold, 
after  one's  blood  had  been  thinned  in  the  lowlands. 
The  unpatched  wooden  walls  let  in  every  icy  wind. 
With  all  my  woollen  clothing  on,  besides  a  ruana 
or  coarse  woollen  mantle,  a  rug,  and  my  poncho  over 
or  under  me,  and  spite  of  aid  from  my  brandy-flask, 
I  still  could  not  keep  warm.  And  this  within  a  few 
degrees  of  the  Equator  I 

But  if  you  cannot  withstand  such  petty  discomforts 
for  the  sake  of  the  ever-shifting  panorama  of  snow- 
peaks,  rugged  mountains,  cosy  valleys,  smiling  wood- 
lands, trim  little  villages,  then  you  are  not  worthy 
to  be  exhilarated  by  the  sun-kissed  winds  of  the 
Andes  or  soothed  by  the  languorous  tropical  moon- 
light of  the  lower  lands,  or  to  partake  of  the  open- 
handed  hospitality  which  will  greet  you. 

The  Quindio  mule-trail,  after  crossing  the  divide 
of  the  Central  Cordillera  and  passing  the  clean, 
thriving  hamlets  which  the  industrious  sons  of 
Antioquia  are  rapidly  colonizing,  leads  down  to 
Cartago  in  the  Cauca  Valley,  a  four  or  five  days' 
ride  from  Girardot.  Here  one  connects  with  the 
old  "  royal  highway,"  also  nothing  but  a  mule-trail, 
exception  made  of  a  better  stretch  here  and  there, 
that  leads  northward  to  Manizales  and  Medellin, 
three  and  five  days'  distant  respectively,  and  south- 


108  COLOMBIA 

ward  through  the  Cauca  Valley  and  the  southern 
tablelands  of  Popayan  and  Pasto  to  the  frontier  and 
on  to  Quito,  the  capital  of  Ecuador,  if  one  wishes 
to  visit  that  country  and  ride  on  the  newly  completed 
railroad   from    Guayaquil    to    Quito. 

On  the  first  lap  of  the  journey  south  you  can 
rest,  if  you  want  to,  from  the  saddle  and  take  instead 
one  of  the  Cauca  River  steamers  :  there  are  three 
small  modern  boats,  operated  by  the  local  Compahia 
de  Navegacion  del  Rio  Cauca  (capital  $180,000), 
which  do  a  good  business,  when  the  river  is  not  too 
low  for  travel,  plying  to  and  from  Call,  a  distance 
of  120  miles  on  the  river  from  Cartago.  Cali  is  the 
prospective  terminus — for  the  present,  at  least — of  the 
3 -foot  gauge  railroad  from  the  Pacific  port  of 
Buenaventura— another  unfinished  line  whose  vicis- 
situdes and  misfortunes  date  back  over  forty  years. 
The  road  is  now  operated,  and  construction  is  being 
rapidly  pushed  forward  by  a  native  company,  the 
Compahia  del  Ferrocarrit  del  Pacifico  (paid  up 
capital  $854,000),  of  which  the  Banco  Central  is 
the  principal  shareholder;  a  loan  of  £119,200, 
placed  at  86,  was  recently  obtained  in  England. 
Under  the  liberal  contract  from  the  Government,  one 
half  of  the  customs  receipts  of  the  ports  of  Buena- 
ventura and  Tumaco  are  turned  over  to  the  company 
in  payment  of  the  subsidies  to  which  it  is  entitled  ; 
so  it  is  confidentially  hoped,  and  with  every  show  of 
reason,  that  the  line  will  be  completed  to  Cali  next 
year.'  Eighty-three  miles  have  been  constructed,  the 
highest  point  of  the  pass  has  been  reached,  and 
only  25  miles  more  are  needed  to  descend  to 
Cali.  The  importance  of  this  railway,  once  the 
Panama  Canal  is  opened,  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated ;  but  its  present  feeble  locomotives  and 
light  rails  would  be  wholly  inadequate  for  the  traffic 

'  Since  the  above  was  written,  disastrous  freshets  have  occurred, 
destroying  part  of  the  completed  road  and  delaying  new  work. 


TRAVEL   AND   TRANSPORTATION     109 

that  should  be  developed,  especially  if  the  extensive 
coal  deposits  near  Cali  prove,  upon  working,  to  be  as 
rich  and  valuable  as  optimistic  reports  claim  them 
to    be. 

From  Cali  one  can  proceed  by  mule-roads,  a 
three  or  four  days'  ride  on  either  side  of  the  Cauca 
Valley,  to  Popayan,  which  has  recently  been  placed 
in  direct  communication  with  the  Pacific  Ocean  by 
a  trail  to  the  small  port  of  Micay,  but  traffic  still 
prefers  the  old  route,  as  only  launches  or  occasional 
sailing  vessels  touch  at  Micay.  From  Popayan  to 
Pasto,  near  the  Ecuadorian  frontier,  is  another  week's 
ride  on  poor  roads.  Pasto  is  an  important  city  with 
a  large  Indian  population,  whose  development,  like 
that  of  so  many  other  Colombian  towns,  is  retarded 
by  lack  of  facile  communication  with  the  coast. 
Ordinarily  it  is  reached  from  the  port  of  Tumaco, 
on  the  Pacific,  by  launches  or  canoes  to  Barbacoas, 
and  thence  by  mule,  a  six  or  seven  days'  trip. 

Buenaventura  and  Tumaco  are  the  only  Colombian 
ports  of  any  importance  on  the  Pacific.  Apart  from 
occasional  tramp  steamers  and  sailing  vessels  and  the 
regular  but  infrequent  visits  of  the  German  Kosmos 
liners,  they  are  served  exclusively,  and  anything  but 
well,  by  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company  with 
fortnightly  sailings  (when  they  adhere  to  the 
schedule)  to  and  from  Panama.  The  boats  on  this 
coasting  line,  far  different  from  those  run  by  the 
same  company  to  Peru  and  Chile,  do  little  credit 
to  the  British  flag.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  Royal 
Mail  Steamship  Company,  Ltd.,  which,  it  is  said,  has 
recently  acquired  control  of  the  Pacific  Steam,  will 
run  better  boats,  reduce  the  exorbitantly  high  freights 
and  passage  rates,  and  generally  improve  the  service, 
even  before  the  opening  of  the  canal.  That  event, 
at  least,  is  bound  to  assure  good  shipping  facilities 
to  this  coast. 

But   here    we    are   arrived   at    the    Pacific   Ocean. 


110  COLOMBIA 

By  mountain  mule,  often  knee-deep  in  mud,  or  by 
lagging  lowland  horse  under  a  blazing  tropical  sun, 
by  river-steamers  and  dug-out  canoes,  by  train  over 
swamps,  through  jungle  or  on  the  slopes  of  dizzy 
precipices,  it  is  a  long  journey  we  have  made,  patient 
reader  ;  we  must  needs  be  fatigued,  and  merit  the 
repose   of   a  closed  chapter. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

ANOTHER  WORD   ON    RAILROADS 

A  GLANCE  at  the  map  and  a  review  of  the  last 
chapter  will  show  that  the  few  hundred  miles  of 
railways  already  built  or  under  way  in  Colombia 
not  only  do  not  form  any  connected  group,  but  with 
rare  exceptions  will  not  even  serve  as  links  for  any 
future  national  or  international  system  that  may  be 
constructed. 

Worse  yet,  with  the  exception  of  the  lines  on 
the  Sabana,  the  railways  depend  almost  wholly  for 
freight  on  exports  and  imports  ;  their  local  trade 
is  utterly  insignificant,  and  some  of  these  lines,  con- 
structed at  great  sacrifices,  seem  doomed  to  failure, 
perhaps  to  become  rusty  relics  overgrown  with  weeds 
or  encroached  upon  by  tropical  jungle,  when  really 
efficient  transportation  by  more  direct,  more  solid 
and  cheaper  routes  is  eventually  furnished,  unless, 
indeed,  the  domestic  interchange  of  products  assumes 
proportions  that  are  to  be  scarcely  looked  for.  Take 
for  instance  the  Girardot  Railway  :  its  great  object 
was  to  furnish  more  facile  communication  between 
the  capital  and  the  coast.  The  same  amount  of 
money  represented  by  its  securities  and  spent  or 
wasted  by  the  Government  during  its  long  history 
could  doubtless  have  gone  very  far,  wisely  and 
economically    handled,    towards    building    a    railroad 

to  the  sea,  or  at  least  to  a  part  of  the  Magdalena, 

ni 


112  COLOMBIA 

not  more  than  200  miles  or  so  from  the  mouth,  that 
is  really  navigable  and  not  merely  so  by  courtesy,  as 
is  the  rest  of  the  stream.  The  Magdalena  is  not,  in 
its  present  condition  at  least,  fit  to  be  a  great  shipping 
channel — it  is  not  for  a  moment  to  be  compared 
as  a  commercial  highway  with  the  great  rivers  of 
America,  the  Mississippi,  the  St.  Lawrence,  Amazon, 
and  River  Plate,  nor  even  with  those  of  secondary 
rank  like  the  Hudson,  the  Columbia,  the  Orinoco,  and 
never  will  be  their  equal.  Its  utility,  actual  or  latent, 
is  limited,  and  to  have  staked  the  early  railroad- 
building  energies  of  the  nation,  and  largely  its 
pecuniary  resources,  too,  on  establishing  connection 
with  this  frail  artery  of  trade  without  any  serious 
attempt  to  improve  its  navigability,  has  been  Folly, 
Waste,  Crime.  The  money  spent,  too,  on  the  Carta- 
gena and  Barranquilla  railways  and  on  the  projects 
for  extension  of  the  Santa  Marta — why  not  have  spent 
this  or  part  of  this,  and  a  small  part  would  have 
sufficed,  in  improving  the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena 
so  as  to  make  it  accessible  to  ocean -steamers?  At 
present  vessels  rarely  dare  to  hazard  the  dangerous 
entrance.  Why,  indeed,  but  for  the  selfishness,  short- 
sightedness, or  jealousies  of  other  local  interests? 

And  what  permanent  assurance  of  trade  can  a 
railway  have  if  it  does  not  possess  feeders?  Yet 
what  attempts  have  been  made  to  build  good  roads 
that  would  furnish  even  nearby  sections  access  to 
the  tracks?  Had  one -half  of  the  money  that  has 
been  ill -spent  on  rail  projects  never  carried  through, 
on  prejudiced  surveys,  on  graft,  on  construction  so 
poor  that  rebuilding  was  required,  on  claims  for 
alleged  breaches  of  contract,  etc.,  been  expended  in 
supplying  good  wagon-roads,  it  is  probable  that  many 
sections  of  the  country  would  have  so  developed 
and  progressed,  revolutions  notwithstanding,  that  a 
crying  need  for  railroads,  with  certainty  of  their 
profitable  operation,   would  have  arisen — such  a  cry 


ANOTHER  WORD  ON  RAILROADS     113 

as  to  compel  the  ear  of  capitalists  who  would  be 
eager  to  satisfy  the  need. 

But  no  !  we  must  needs  march  in  the  vanguard 
of  civilization  before  we  can  creep.  Result  :  600 
miles  of  provisional  track  for  a  population  of  five 
millions  and  400,000  square  miles,  and  Colombia's 
railroading  must  still  needs  be  done  all  over  again, 
sooner  or  later,  and  the  sooner  the  better. 

Subsidies  for  railroad  building  have  been  given, 
and  generously.  But  apparently  no  one  in  Colombia 
has  ever  stopped  to  consider  the  very  obvious  fact 
that  railroads  do  not  create  traffic  ;  that  in  and  by 
themselves  they  do  not  develop  a  country,  but  simply 
allow  free  play  for  development  for  otherwise  hope- 
lessly hampered  individual  energies  and  initiative  ; 
that  they  are  merely  a  condition,  indispensable,  it 
is  true,  but  still  merely  a  condition,  an  attendant 
circumstance  and  requisite,  but  not  a  cause  of  trade 
improvement,  of  increased  circulation,  of  greater 
wealth  and  progress. 

Subsidies  have  been  necessary  in  the  past  and 
still  are,  because  of  the  fact  that  the  present  freight 
movement  of  Colombia  is  too  small  in  and  by  itself 
to  warrant  railroad  enterprise.  Nothing  can  better 
show  this  than  the  table  of  statistics  printed  on  the 
following  pages,  compiled  laboriously  from  sources 
here  and  sources  there. »  For  its  incompleteness  or 
even  for  possible  errors  I  do  not  apologize — any 
one  who  has  had  occasion  to  collect  statistics  in 
Colombia  will  appreciate   the   difficulty  of  the  task. 

These  figures,  covering  as  they  do  the  cream  of 
the  transportation  business,  show  conclusively  that 
Government   aid   is   essential.      But   the   Government 

'  I  may  mention  Jalhay :  La  Republiquc  de  Colombie  (Brussels, 
IQ09) ;  the  publications  of  the  Department  of  Public  Works,  and 
reports  kindly  furnished  me  by  one  or  two  of  the  railways,  notably 
the  Barranquilla,  the  Santa  Marta,  the  Amaga,  the  Pacifico,  and 
the  Girardot. 

9 


114 


COLOMBIA 


RAILROAD 


Name. 

Length. 

Oltst.anuing 
Shares. 

Outstanding 
Bonds. 

Passbn(;ek  Rates. 

(Per  Kilometre.) 

(Col.  Gold.) 

ISt. 

2nd. 

3rd. 

Kilos. 

Miles. 

$ 

$ 

$ 

Amaga 

24 

15 

$1,000,000 

None. 

0.025 

0.02 

O.OI 

Antioquia 

135' 

85 

*577,0I4' 

None. 

0.02 

O.OI 

0.005 

Barranquilla  3 ... 

27 

18 

;^200,000 

£100,000  (6%) 

0.026 

0.016 

None. 

Cartagena 

105 

65 

£750,000 

£600,000  (5%) 

0.024 

0.014 

— 

Cauca  [Pacifico] 

134' 

85 

fi854,ooo 

£119,200(5%) 

0.02 

0.015 

— 

Ciicuta 

71 

45 

— 

;^53700 

0.0365 

0.0155 

— 

La  Dorada 

114 

73 

;^350,000 

£350,000 

0.016 

None. 

0.005 

Girardot 

132 

82 

£900,000 

£1,480,000(6%) 

7.(0.033 
(0.022 

0.026 
0.017 

0.017 

O.OI  I 

Norte    

62 

39 

£600,000 

£180,000 

0.03 

0.02 

O.OI 

Puerto    Wilches 

20 

12 

£495-000 

£506,760(7%) 

(Not  in 

operat 

ion.) 

Sabana 

40 

25 

8 

£187,000 

0.02 

0.015 

O.OI 

Santa  Marta     ... 

1319 

829 

£359,160'° 

£186,400(670) 

0.014 

0.008 

0.0015 

Sur        

30 

19 

$300,000'3 

£65,000(8^%) 

0.015 

0.0125 

— 

Tolima 

25 

15 

$30,000'3 

None. 

(Not  in 

operat 

ion.) 

Totals 

1,050 

660 

— 

£3,829,060 

— 

— 

'  112  kilos  in  operation. 

=  Owned  by  the  Department.  This  figure  is  cost  to  date  (exclusive  of  damages 
to  contractors)  to  National  Government. 

3  Statistics  for  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1911.  Government  report  for  3'ear 
ending  December  31  gives  receipts,  $207,863  ;  expenses,  $138,577. 

-»  100  kilos  in  operation. 

5  Silver  money. 

^  Converted  into  gold  at  235.     Exclusive  of  tramway. 


ANOTHER  WORD  ON  RAILROADS     115 


STATISTICS,    191 1 


Freight  Rates. 
(Per  Ton.     Kilometre.) 

Passengers 
Carried. 

Tons  of 
Freight 
Carried. 

Gross 
Receipts. 

Working 

Imports, 
(Col. 

1    Exports. 
Gold.) 

Expenses. 

O.IO 

0.08 

365,007 

796 

$44,526 

(Not  reported.) 

0.20 

0.15 

57,422 

20,544 

$363,932 

$287,595 

0.13 

0.084 

166,026 

91,969 

$264,582 

$133,653 

0.045 

0.045 

39,429 

45,121 

$189,588 

— 

0.20 

0.15 

11,727 

12,508 

$190,965 

$266,946 

O.636S 

0.2725 

112,871 

20,772 

$212,120* 

$113,565' 

0.20 

0.14 

99,991 

56,895 

$355,024 

$193,519 

0.281 
0-187 

0.15U 
o.ioj 

95,605 

29,161 

$382,714 

$293,307 

0.16 

0.08 

119,026 

58,490 

$222,525 

(Not  reported.) 

0.12 

0.06 

276,474 

64,351 

$263,203 

$136,367 

0.08 

0.06 

170,047 

,     19,579    1 
1 16,708'=  J 

;£84,IOO" 

;^73,586" 

0.105 

0.08 

82,180 

31,196 

$64,141 

(Not  reported.) 

— 

— 

1,495,805 

567,690 

— 

— 

?  Upper  line,  mountain  ;  lower  line,  valley  rates. 
^  Owned  by  the  Government. 

9  Includes  lo  miles  private  lines  connecting  with  the  railroad. 
'°  ^200,000  ordinary,  ;£i59,i6o  7%  preferred. 

"  Nine  months  ending  September  30.     Government  report  for  calendar  year 
gives  receipts,  $513,937  ;  expenses,  $618,974. 
"  Bananas. 
'3  Owned  by  the  Government.     This  figure  is  price  paid  by  the  Government. 


116  COLOMBIA 

has  only  done  half  its  duty  when  it  grants  the  rail- 
road contractor  a  subsidy.  Equally  essential  is  it 
that  it  spend  a  proportionate  amount  in  building 
and  improving  roads  and  in  directly  fomenting  (a 
word  much  used  in  those  Spanish  American  coun- 
tries where  it  is  least  exemplified)  the  agricultural 
and  other  industries,  and  promoting  the  coloniza- 
tion of  the  sparsely  settled  tracts  within  the  radius 
of  usefulness   of   the   subsidized   railroad. 

Some  Colombians  dream  that  their  country  can 
enter  the  kingdom  of  Steel  without  the  aid  of  the 
foreigner,  but  the  contrary  proposition  would  seem 
to  require  little  argument.  It  is  inevitable  that 
foreign  capital  be  called  upon  for  the  purpose. 
Foreign  companies  must  continue,  as  in  the  past,  to 
construct  and  operate  the  railways,  or  at  least  foreign 
investors  must,  as  bankers  and  bondholders,  supply 
the  bulk  of  the  capital.  In  either  case,  the  writer 
has  been  reluctantly  forced  to  the  conclusion  that 
investment  in  prospective  Colombian  railways  (ex- 
cept reliance  be  placed  mainly  in  a  Government 
guarantee)  is  unwise,  unless  either  the  Government 
gives  assurance  that  it  will  perform  its  whole  duty  and 
not  merely  the  subsidy  half,  or  unless  the  railroad 
company  is  strong  enough  financially,  and  its  stock- 
holders patient  enough  to  enable  it  to  do  that  which 
is  in  large  part  properly  the  function  of  the  Govern- 
ment. If  the  Government  is  not,  then  the  company 
itself  should  be,  prepared  to  build  wagon-roads, 
advertise  and  propagandize,  attract  colonists,  and 
encourage  agriculture  and  industry  by  teaching  im- 
proved methods  and  even  by  loaning  funds. 

I  have  permitted  myself  to  dwell  at  some  length 
on  these  points  because,  as  I  have  already  said, 
Colombia's  railroading  has  to  be  commenced  anew, 
and  consequently  the  country  ofi"ers  an  almost  virgin 
field  for  the  railway  operator  and  financier. 

As   to   existing    roads  :     one   or    two    perhaps    are 


ANOTHER   WORD  ON  RAILROADS     117 

destined  to  disappear  :  nearly  all  the  others  will  have 
to  be  made  over,  wider  gauge,  double  tracking, 
heavier  rails,  better  grading,  stronger  safeguards 
against  the  inclemencies  of  Nature,  firmer  road-beds, 
improved  equipment  and  rolling  stock — these  are  or 
will  be  soon  required  on  most  ways.  A  current 
joke,  supposed  to  be  a  colloquy  between  two  pas- 
sengers, illustrates  the  character  of  many  an  Andine 
road-bed  to-day  :  "  We  seem  to  be  going  more 
smoothly  " — "  Yes,  we  are  off  the  track  now." 

As  to  future  roads  :  it  takes  more  of  a  prophet 
than  any  writer  can  with  safety  pretend  to  be  to 
foretell  on  what  lines  the  railroad  system  of  the  future 
will  develop — so  many  forces  come  into  play,  in  the 
guise  of  political  and  local  influences,  changed  con- 
ditions, and  purely  adventitious  circumstances.  No 
more  can  be  done  than  to  set  down  the  tendencies 
indicated  by  present  clamours,  and  the  routes, 
not  necessarily  coincident  with  those  clamours, 
indicated  by  a  study  of  physical  and  commercial 
geography. 

A  reason  of  international  politics,  the  desire  to 
be  in  a  position  both  to  readily  protect  the  frontier 
in  case  of  need  and  to  be  liberated  from  the  bondage 
to  Venezuela  imposed  by  the  Zulia  and  Maracaibo 
route,  is  creating  a  strong  demand  for  a  railway  from 
Cucuta  to  the  Magdalena  River.  Rough  preliminary 
surveys  have  been  made  to  the  river-port  of  Tama- 
lameque.  This  line  would  open  up  much  good  agri- 
cultural land,  materially  reduce,  it  is  claimed,  the 
tolls  now  paid  by  Cucuta  merchants,  and  if  con- 
nected through  Bucaramanga  to  Bogota,  would  fur- 
nish a  better  route  from  the  outer  world  to  the  capital 
district  than  either  the  present  ways  or  the  Great 
Central  Northern  line  now  building,  as  it  would  reach 
a  part  of  the  river  better  from  a  shipping  standpoint 
than  is  Puerto  Wilches.  It  is  said  steamers  of  800 
tons  could  reach  Tamalameque.     Moreover,  so  con- 


118  COLOMBIA 

nccted,  this  road  could  furnish  the  nucleus  for  a 
respectable  trunk  line  that  could  be  prolonged  eventu- 
ally to  the  sea,  connected  with  the  Santa  Marta,  or, 
crossing  the  Magdalena,  with  the  Barranquilla  or 
Cartagena  roads  ;  in  the  latter  case  run  through  with 
branches  to  the  more  important  regions,  like 
Sincelejo  and  El  Carmen,  of  the  cattle  plains  of  the 
department  of  Bolivar. 

More  promising,  however,  is  the  outlook  for  the 
prolongation  of  the  Cauca  railroad  that  is  soon  to 
cross  the  Western  Cordillera  from  the  Pacific.  There 
is  no  section  of  Colombia  that  lends  itself  so  readily 
and  at  such  low  cost  to  railroad  building  as  that 
part  of  the  Cauca  River  basin  known  so  distinctively 
throughout  Colombia  as  the  valley  par  excellence 
that  it  is  called  simply  El  Valle,  and  it  is  a  section 
at  the  same  time  that  is  already,  as  things  go  in 
that  country,  well  developed,  though  there  is  still 
opportunity  to  increase  its  agricultural  and  pastoral 
wealth  a  hundredfold.  This  forms  a  section  of  the 
great  Pan-American  Railway  scheme.  The  engineers 
of  that  monumental  survey  estimated  the  cost  of  con- 
struction of  the  part  we  are  now  speaking  of  at 
$16,000  a  mile  from  Cali  south  to  La  Bolsa,  47 
miles,  and  as  low  as  $13,000  a  mile  from  Cali 
north  to  Cartago,  124  miles. ^  Following  the  line 
of  the  Pan-American  survey,  south  through  the  im- 
portant towns  of  Popayan  and  Pasto  and  to  Quito 
in  Ecuador  (440  miles,  estimated  cost  $32,000  a 
mile)  and  north  through  the  department  of  Antioquia 
to  the  sea  (Cartago  to  Poblanco,  100  miles,  $32,000 
a  mile  ;  Poblanco  to  Antioquia,  70  miles,  $24,000 
a  mile  ;  Antioquia  to  Cartagena,  374  miles,  $22,500 
a  mile),   we  would  have  a  great   international  trunk 

'  This  section  is  now  served  by  the  Cauca  River  steamers,  but 
during  a  protracted  dry  season  these  boats  are  left  high  and  dry. 
South  of  La  Bolsa,  the  river  is  too  small,  and  north  of  Puerto  Dagua 
till  again  well  in  Antioquia,  too  rapid,  for  navigation. 


ANOTHER  WORD  ON  RAILROADS     119 

line  through  the  central  western  portion  of  Colombia, 
one  of  the  richest  mining  and  agricultural  regions 
throughout  the  whole  world.  Probably  more 
advisable  would  be  a  deviation  from  this  plan  :  north 
from  Cartago  through  Manizales,  then  to  connect 
with  the  now  advancing  Amaga  line  to  Medellin, 
thence  north  to  the  sea,  not  to  Cartagena  but  by  a 
shorter  route,  as  proposed  in  the  Granger  concession, 
to  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  (Darien),  where  extensive  port 
improvements  are  being  made  by  a  German  com- 
pany in  connection  with  banana  cultivation.  The 
only  dubious  thing  about  this  plan  is  that  it  would 
entail  about  200  miles  through  forest  and  jungle, 
uninhabited  and  undeveloped,  remote  from  any  work 
of  civiUzed  man,  and  little  likely  to  be  rapidly  built 
up.  But  such  an  interoceanic  trunk  line,  with  one 
arm  at  Buenaventura  and  one  running  into  Ecuador, 
and  terminating  on  the  Caribbean  at  either  Carta- 
gena or  Uraba,  it  is  reasonably  safe  to  say  will  one 
day  come,  though  perhaps  not  in  the  next  decades. 
It  could,  when  necessities,  governmental  or  of  intra- 
national trade  justified,  be  connected  across  some 
pass  in  the  Central  Cordillera  with  the  Magdalena 
Valley  :  ^  the  Quindio  route  would  seem  as 
favourable  as  any  yet  known,  effecting  a  junc- 
tion at  Ibague  with  the  proposed  Tolima  Railway 
from  Girardot.  In  this  connection  it  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  preliminary  work  is  now  being 
pursued  for  an  aerial  railway  from  Manizales  to 
Mariquita,  a  station  on  the  Dorada  Extension  line, 
with  a  branch  to  the  rich  Zancudo  silver  mines  at 
Titiribi.  The  work  is  being  done  by  a  German 
engineering  firm  for  the  Dorada  Company. 

Other  railways  are  in  the  air,  but  very  much  "  in 
the  air."     Of  these,  bare  mention  will  suffice.     They 

'  The  Cauca  Railroad  Company  has,  since  the  above  was  written, 
entered  into  a  contract  witli  the  Government  to  prolong  its  line  to 
Girardot,  but  Congress  failed  to  take  action. 


120  COLOMBIA 

all  possess  the  intrinsic  merit  of  being  really  needed 
either  by  local  necessities  or  for  the  development 
of  the  country  or  for  military  purposes,  but  there 
is  little  likelihood  of  much  attention  being  devoted 
to  them  while  there  are  more  pressing  needs  to 
satisfy.  Of  this  nature  are  lines  from  Pasto  to  the 
sea,  the  desirabihty  of  which  would  be  largely 
obviated  by  the  prolongation  of  the  Cauca  road  ; 
from  Medellin,  following  the  Nechi  River  to 
Zaragoza,  from  which  place  navigation  is  more  con- 
stantly better  than  from  Puerto  Berrio,  but  the  con- 
struction of  the  one  railway  will  probably  stifle  the 
other,  though  better,  route  ;  from  the  Sabana  of 
Bogota  down  to  the  llanos  of  the  Meta,  a  very  short 
distance  ;  a  line  in  the  upper  Magdalena  Valley, 
in  level  country,  comparatively  cheap  to  build — the 
desirability  of  a  railway  thence  across  the  Eastern 
Cordillera  at  some  southerly  point,  to  mobilize  troops 
at  the  menaced  southern  frontier,  is  recognized,  but 
the  nation  stands  aghast  and  consequently  inert  at 
the  vast  cost  and  the  exiguity  of  traffic.  Concessions 
have  also  been  granted  in  recent  years,  but  have 
lapsed,  for  railroads  in  the  Goajira  from  Rio 
Hacha  around  by  Valle  Dupar  to  the  inevitable 
Magdalena  and  from  the  Norte  Railway  through 
Tunja  to  Sogamoso  ;  and  in  remoter  periods 
still  other  concessions  were  granted  which  never 
hatched  much  more  than  papel  sellado  and 
oratory. 

Pursuant  to  Law  104  of  1892,  which  is  still  in 
force,  the  Executive  Department  is  authorized  without 
the  necessity  of  further  confirmatory  legislation  to 
grant  railroad  concessions  and  subsidies  within  the 
prescribed   limits. 

The  subsidy  may  be  either  {a)  a  grant  of  public 
lands  of  not  more  than  300  hectares  and  a  sum  not 
exceeding  $10,000  gold,  payable  in  6  per  cent. 
bonds,  for  each  kilometre  of  railway  opened  to  public 


ANOTHER  WORD  ON  RAILROADS     121 

service.  The  bonds  issued  under  this  law  are  amor- 
tizable  by  lo  per  cent,  of  the  gross  product  of 
customs  collections  of  all  ports  in  the  Republic  ;    or 

{b)  A  guarantee  for  twenty  years  of  interest  at  a 
rate  not  exceeding  7  per  cent,  on  the  capital  actually 
invested  not  greater  than  $30,000  per  kilometre  of 
equipped  road.  If  the  road's  net  income  should, 
however,  during  three  consecutive  years  be  sufficient 
to  cover  the  interest  guaranteed,  the  Government's 
obligation  terminates  once  for  all,  regardless  of  future 
earnings. 

The  concessions  may  be  for  terms  of  one  hundred 
years,  the  Government  having  the  right  to  purchase 
for  cash  at  any  time  after  fifty  years  at  the  appraised 
valuation  and  after  seventy-five  years  at  one-half  of 
such  valuation.  At  the  expiration  of  the  full  term, 
the  railway  with  its  equipment  and  rolling  stock,  all 
to  be  in  good  condition,  becomes  the  property  of  the 
Government  without  payment. 

Some  of  the  concessions  have  been  even  more 
liberal  than  the  terms  of  tliis  law.  For  instance,  the 
original  Puerto  Wilches  contract  guaranteed  7  per 
cent,  per  annum  on  the  sum  of  $40,000  a  kilometre  ; 
the  guarantee  for  the  Santa  Marta  extension  is  ex- 
tended to  twenty-five  years  ;  for  building  the  Cauca 
or  Pacific  Railroad,  the  Government  pays  as  high  in 
the  most  mountainous  part  as  $65,333  a  kilometre 
and  in  the  easier  parts  $38,000  or  $40,000,  and  pay- 
ment is  secured  by  50  per  cent,  of  the  gross  customs 
collections  of  Buenaventura  and  Tumaco — an  amount 
that  reaches  half  a  million  dollars  a  year  and  is  paid 
punctually  every  month.  Such  have  been  the  sub- 
sidies granted  in  the  past  ;  they  furnish  a  clue  to 
what  may  reasonably  be  asked  for  new  lines.  Save 
one  point — the  spreading  doctrine  of  Government 
Ownership.  The  customary  system  of  granting  con- 
cessions, which  tend  to  come  into  the  hands  of 
foreigners,  has  been  assailed  both  on  practical  and 


122  COLOMBIA 

on  political  grounds,'  it  being  urged  that  the  Govern- 
ment should  undertake  either  direct  or  by  contract 
all  new  work  solely  for  its  own  account  and  risk. 
The  movement  for  the  nationalization  of  railways 
present  and  future  is  gaining  headway — it  is  part  of 
the  programme  of  the  Liberal  party,  but  it  is  more 
than  doubtful  whether,  even  if  the  doctrine  gained 
ascendancy,  financial  impediments  would  not  effec- 
tively block  its  carrying  out.  But  even  defeat  will 
have  its  victory  ;  at  least  this  will  be  gained — the 
experience  of  other  countries  will  be  availed  of  and 
monopolistic  franchises,  that  before  their  expiration 
would  become  extremely  valuable  and  possibly  grip 
the  very  life  out  of  the  people,  will  no  longer  be 
freehandedly  given  away. 

'  Notably  by  Perez  Triana  in  Dcsde  Lcjos,  1907  :  there  is  a  sub- 
stantial basis  of  truth  in  his  arguments,  but  it  would  seem  from  the 
practical  side  that  promoters  and  concessionaires  cannot  yet  be 
eliminated  :  contrary  to  the  assumption  of  Seilor  Perez  Triana, 
bankers  in  the  great  financial  marts,  to  whom  it  is  admitted  resort 
must  be  had,  would  rather  deal  with  a  responsible  and  reliable 
concessionaire  than  with  the  direct  representatives  of  the  Govern- 
ment. The  initiative,  energy,  and  resourcefulness  of  the  genuine 
pioneer  railroad  builder  cannot  find  any  substitute  among  mere 
Government  employees.  But  extreme  care  should  be  taken  by  the 
Government  that  it  grant  contracts  only  to  trustworthy  parties  and 
not,  as  it  has  unfortunately  too  frequently  done  in  the  past,  to 
the  first  slick  promoter  and  adventurous  concession-hunter  who 
happened  to  come  along. 


CHAPTER    IX 


COMMERCE 


Colombia's  foreign  commerce  is  insignificant  com- 
pared to  that  of  some  other  Spanish  American 
countries,  whose  population  is  but  httle  greater,  Hke 
Argentina,  or  even  less,  Uke  Cuba  and  Chile  ;  but 
when  we  consider  the  lack  of  inland  transportation 
facilities,  the  surprising  thing  is  not  that  she  has  so 
little  foreign  commerce,  but  that  she  has  so  much. 

The  slow  but  constant  growth  of  her  international 
business,  interrupted  only  by  political  disturbance 
or  financial  crises  such  as  we  considered  in  a  previous 
chapter,  is  shown  by  the  following  statistics  : — 


Exports. 

Imports. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

1832  

1,236,850 

1.454,142 

1842  

2,386,967 

3.423,288 

1855    

•-    3.393.251 

4,168,468 

1865    

6,772,017 

7,897,206 

1870  

..    8,247,817 

5.759.018 

1880  

••   15.836,943 

12,121,480 

1885    

..   14,171,241 

6,879,531 

189s    

..   15,088,316 

11,523,222 

1905  

..   12,314,916 

12,281,720 

1908   

••   14.998,744 

13,513.891 

1909  

..   16,040,198 

12,117,927 

I9I0   

..   17,786,806 

17.385,039 

I9II 

■•   22,375,899 

18,108,863 

The  Colombians  are  not  a  nation  of  shopkeepers  ; 
the    very    strong    restrictions    placed    on    commerce 


1!23 


124  COLOMBIA 

during  the  colonial  days  prevented  the  transmission 
of  any  heritage  of  business  aptitude.  Fortunately,  no 
social  prejudice  against  trade  has  come  down  the 
generations  ;  men  of  the  best  families  engage  freely 
in  business,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  even  those 
who  have  occupied  high  political  station  tending  their 
own  little  shops  and  none  to  think  the  worse  of  them. 

And  little  shops  they  are  apt  to  be.  The  day  of 
"  big  business  "  has  not  yet  arrived  in  Colombia. 
The  wholesaler  will  have  his  retail  store  attached  or 
combined,  and  will  also  be  a  buyer  for  export  busi- 
ness— specializing  has  not  been  carried  far.  The 
bulk  of  the  business  is  done  by  what  we  may  call 
general  stores,  which  are  alike  exporters  and  im- 
porters, wholesale  distributors  and  retailers.  Many 
such  firms  are  made  up  of  foreigners,  permanently 
settled  in  the  country,  or  of  merchants  of  foreign 
parentage.  Among  them,  the  Germans  are  conspicu- 
ous. As  for  the  Colombians  themselves,  it  is  not 
unusual  for  those  who  have  shown  marked  ability  for 
trade  and  have  amassed  some  capital  to  seek  larger 
fields  ;  coming  to  Europe  or  the  United  States,  they 
engage  as  factors  and  commission  merchants  and, 
availing  themselves  of  their  connections  at  home, 
secure  a  considerable  share  of  the  Colombian 
business. 

With  the  exception  of  bananas  from  Santa  Marta 
and  a  few  specialities,  practically  all  commodities 
from  Colombia  are  consigned  to  the  commission 
houses  of  the  United  States  and  Europe  :  New  York, 
London,  and  Hamburg  being,  in  the  order  named,  the 
principal  markets.  Even  a  large  part  of  the  gold 
and  silver  product  goes  to  the  same  firms.  Of  the 
exports,  far  the  most  important  is  coffee,  of  which 
two-thirds  goes  to  the  United  States,  the  remainder 
being  divided  chiefly  between  England  and  France 
and  Germany.  The  larger  planters  ship  direct  to 
the  commission  merchants,   to  whom  they  are  often 


COMMERCE 


125 


indebted  for  advances  ;  the  smaller  will  sell  to  the 
general  stores,  which  finance  the  purchases  by  60 
and  90-day  drafts  on  the  commission  houses.  The 
competition  to  get  the  crops  is  keen.  The  country 
is  often  well  scoured  by  the  agents  of  the  local 
dealers  in  search  of  advantageous  deals  with  the 
small  planter.  These  local  dealers  may  be  indepen- 
dent, but  more  often  they  are  in  very  close  relation- 
ship to,  if  not  actually  the  purchasing  agents  of  the 
foreign  houses,  many  of  which,  in  addition,  own  a 
number  of  plantations  which  they  have  taken  over 
for  debts. 

Besides  coffee,  the  principal  exports  are  the 
precious  metals,  which  go  to  England,  France,  and 
the  States,  and  hides  and  skins,  of  which  the  United 
States  is  the  chief  consumer,  as  it  is  also  of  bananas, 
Panama  hats  so-called,  rubber,  cacao,  woods,  and 
drugs.  Germany  supplies  the  leading  market  for 
the  Colombian  tobacco,  vegetable  ivory  and  dividivi 
pods  (used  for  tanning),  and  Cuba  for  live  cattle. 
Other  export  products  are  insignificant  in  quantity 
and  value  and  scattered,  except  emeralds,  of  which 
several  hundred  thousand  dollars'  worth  are  exported 
annually  to  Europe,  for  account  of  the  Government. 

The  following  statistics  of  the  principal  exports  are 
given  for  the  year  1 9 1 1  : — 


Kilograms. 

Dollars. 

Coffee 

..     37,899,968     valued  at    9,475,448.89 

Gold 

10,574 

3.751.632.37 

Hides 

...      4,449.475 

1,779.790-2 1 

Rubber 

576,760 

,                    900,886.90 

Ivory  nuts 

..     10,989,605 

739,419 

Bananas 

••  io9.785;748 

,                2,172,000 

Tobacco 

..      3,911,012 

332,935 

Hats 

93,874 

1,088,821 

Platinum 

2,554 

345,896 

The  United  States  generally  leads  also  in  exports 
to    Colombia,    shipping   principally   mining,    agricul- 


126  COLOMBIA 

tural,  and  electrical  machinery,  iron  and  steel 
products,  hardware,  flour,  wheat,  cement,  patent 
medicines,  railway  rolling  stock,  lard,  illuminating 
oils  ;  on  account  of  its  proximity,  it  competes 
advantageously  with  Europe  also  in  clothing  and 
furnishings,  in  England's  old  stand-by,  cotton 
goods  and  cloth,  in  toilet  articles,  news  and  wrap- 
ping paper,  furniture,  shoes,  musical  instruments,  and 
stationery. 

Great  Britain  ships  iron  and  steel  products,  railroad 
material,  textiles  ($4,202,733),  railroad  machinery, 
fuel,  wines,  liquors,  and  bottled  waters,  etc.,  to  a 
total  value  of  $5,838,789  in  181 1,  which  is  slightly 
ahead  of  the  total  in  the  same  year  for  the  United' 
States,  $5,404,975  ;  Germany,  principally  cereals, 
wines,  beer,  and  soft  drinks,  tools,  china  and  glass, 
paper  and  pasteboard  and  textiles,  to  a  total  of 
$3,242,634  ;  the  principal  items  in  France's 
$1,718,747  for  the  same  year(i9ii)  were  wines, 
drugs  and  medicines,  and  clothing  ;  Spain  is  a  close 
second  in  wines,  which  constituted  nearly  half  of  her 
total  exports  to  Colombia  of  $397,733.  The  detailed 
statistics  of  exports  and  imports  for  1 9 1 1  are  offici- 
ally given   as   shown   in  the   tables   following. 

The  same  commission  houses  that  receive  and 
sell  Colombia's  products  naturally  control  a  large 
share  of  the  purchases  made  by  that  country  abroad. 
More  and  more  are  jobbers,  as  in  Manchester,  or 
manufacturers,  but  not  always  with  financial  success, 
attempting  to  eliminate  the  commission  house  and 
do  business  direct.  Only  a  very  few,  however,  have 
hitherto  maintained  their  own  offices  or  carried  stock 
in  Colombia  with  managers  or  employees  sent  from 
the  home  office  or  factory.  The  volume  of  possible 
business  does  not  as  a  rule  warrant  such  expense. 
Usually  agents  are  selected  from  among  native  or 
foreign  merchants  already  established  in  Colombia, 
who  will  often  combine  a  number  of  agencies  besides 


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Textiles    

Miscellaneous        

10 


130  COLOMBIA 

handling  their  own  business,  and  are  not,  therefore, 
in  a  position  to  give  as  much  attention  to  any  one 
agency  as  might  be  desirable.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  manufacturers,  especially  those  in  the  United 
States,  are  offenders  in  the  illiberal  treatment  they 
accord  their  agents.  They  will  often  refuse  to  grant 
them  an  agency  unless  the  proposed  agent  makes 
a  large  initial  purchase,  they  will  not  extend  credits, 
permit  stock  to  be  carried,  nor  ship  goods  on  con- 
signment. European  houses  are  generally  generous 
in  these  respects  :  credits  are  not  infrequently  given 
for  six  months  and  even  a  year,  and  ninety  days 
is  the  least.  These  European  manufacturers  are 
accustomed  to  send  samples  to  their  agents  gratis, 
thus  collaborating  in  the  propaganda  of  sale,  whereas 
many  United  States  manufacturers  insist  that  those 
upon  whom  they  confer  the  favour  of  an  agency 
shall  make  an  initial  cash  purchase,  often  heavy, 
of  an  assortment  of  articles  chosen  by  the  manu- 
facturer himself,  frequently  without  the  slightest 
appreciation  of  the  local  needs.  How  large  a  role 
anti-American  feeling  plays  to  the  advantage  of  the 
European  exporter  it  is  impossible  to  estimate 
accurately  :  that  it  is  enormous  cannot  be  doubted. 
Mindful  of  what  they  with  justice  consider  the 
shameful  treatment  received  by  their  nation  at  the 
hands  of  the  United  States  in  connection  with  the 
Panama  affair,  Colombian  buyers,  other  things  being 
equal,  will  prefer  as  a  matter  of  personal  feeling 
to  purchase  in  European  markets.  The  American 
manufacturer,  too,  seems  hopelessly  ignorant  of 
elementary  conditions  in  Colombia  and  hopelessly 
unwilling  to  learn.  His  commercial  education  seems 
faulty  :  I  have  heard  many  a  Colombian  merchant 
complain  of  the  ignorance,  not  only  of  things  in 
Colombia  but  of  affairs  generally,  of  American 
merchants  and  manufacturers  with  whom  he  has 
come  in  contact.     It  is  significant  that  most  of  the 


COMMERCE  131 

commission  houses  in  New  York  that  lead  in  trade 
with  Colombia  are  in  the  hands  of  foreigners — 
Germans,  West  Indians,  nativ^e  Colombians,  or  other 
Spanish  Americans. 

By  improved  selling  methods  and  campaigns  of 
publicity  and  education,  much  can  be  done  to  stimu- 
late the  demand  in  Colombia  for  foreign  goods, 
both  in  what  are  really  necessities,  e.g.,  modern 
agricultural  tools  and  machinery,  carts,  power  plants, 
and  in  specialities,  for  instance,  phonographs,  tele- 
phones, piano-players,  typewriters,  carriages,  even 
automobiles . 

But  a  country's  purchasing  power  in  foreign 
marts  is,  in  the  long  run,  limited  by  its  own  produc- 
tion of  wealth.  It  is,  then,  only  with  the  development 
of  her  natural  resources  that  Colombia's  imports 
can  very  materially  increase.  Domestic  capital  is, 
of  course,  insufficient.  To  foster  the  sale  of  their 
products,  to  increase  the  value  of  Colombia  as  a 
market,  British  and  American  manufacturers  would 
be  well  advised  to  do  their  utmost  to  assist  her 
agricultural  and  industrial  growth,  either  by  direct 
investments  or  by  extending  or  procuring  credit  for 
all  legitimate  new  industries  or  expansion  of  existing 
ones.  In  the  one  case  there  would  be  every  assur- 
ance of  a  reasonable  profit  from  the  investment 
itself  :  in  the  other  case  the  risk  could  be  reduced 
to  a  minimum  by  taking  mortgages  or  other  security 
which  the  borrower  would  be  only  too  glad  to  ofifer. 
But  at  present,  for  a  plantation,  for  example,  or  a 
cattle-ranch,  or  a  municipal  electric-lighting  plant, 
given  a  proposition  too  small  to  warrant  attempting 
the  in  any  case  difficult  task  of  floating  a  bond 
issue,  one  has  to  have  recourse  to  the  commission 
houses  for  credit.  They  do  not  fill  the  need  :  they 
are  loath  to  grant  such  long  credits  as  are  required  ; 
their  resources  are  often  limited,  and,  moreover,  they 
rarely  have  the  same  interest  in  the  growth  of  their 


132  COLOMBIA 

client's  enterprise  as  the  manufacturer  of  agricultural 
machinery,  plantation  railways,  or  of  electric  supplies 
would  have  in  the  new  outlet  for  goods  that  an 
expanding  agricultural  estate,  let  us  say,  or  a  new 
hydro-electric  plant  would  furnish.  Of  course,  in- 
dividual initiative  along  such  lines  can  only  be 
expected  from  the  very  largest  concerns,  but  the 
suggestion  here  put  forward  might  well  merit  the 
systematic  attention  of  manufacturers'  associations, 
not  alone  in  regard  to  Colombia,  but  to  all  the 
undeveloped   Latin -American   countries. 

Stumbling-blocks  to  the  growth  of  commercial 
intercourse  with  Colombia  are  many  :  some  are 
caused  by  the  faults  of  the  foreign  manufacturers 
themselves,  which,  though  often  called  attention  to, 
seem  not  yet  on  the  road  to  cure.  Sending  out 
catalogues  in  any  language  but  Spanish  is  prac- 
tically useless  :  in  fact,  little  can  be  accomplished 
merely  by  mail  (what  little  might  be  done  in  small 
articles  by  the  mail  order  business  is  to-day 
neglected).  Commercial  travellers  must  be  sent  out, 
and  in  this  connection  it  is  pleasing  to  note  the 
steady  improvement  in  the  number  and  character 
of  the  travelling  representatives,  especially  of 
American  firms,  where  improvement  was  most 
needed.  The  much-beridiculed,  language-ignorant, 
"  dago  "-despising,  tobacco-chewing,  grossly  im- 
polite type  of  Yankee  "  hustler  "  is  rapidly  dis- 
appearing. But  the  ignoring  of  the  first  requirements 
of  packing  to  avoid  additional  customs  and  freight 
charges  and  to  minimize  the  risks  of  damage  and 
breakage  due  to  severe  transhipments,  muleback 
journeys,  and  exposure  to  heat  and  wet,  the  failure 
to  follow  positive  instructions,  the  substitution  of 
articles,  and  the  refusal  to  adapt  goods  to  the  wishes 
of  purchasers  still  continue  unabated.  In  these 
respects,  the  methods  of  the  Germans  and  the  French 
are  unquestionably   superior  :     it   is   believed   in   the 


COMMERCE  133 

States  that  the  English,  too,  are  exempt  from  these 
faults,  but  they  also  often  offend. i 

Other  more  serious  impediments  to  trade  are 
the  result  of  conditions  in  Colombia  :  first,  the  lack 
of  transportation  facilities  and  the  high  cost  of 
freights,  and  second,  the  thoroughly  unscientific, 
constantly  fluctuating  and  exorbitantly  high  tariff, 
which  makes  importers  cautious  as  to  their  commit- 
ments. Changes  in  the  law  and  contradictory  rulings 
and  classifications  are  constantly  being  made,  but 
never  a  change  is  made  in  the  fundamentally  vicious 
underlying  principle  of  the  present  system  of 
levying  the  duties  entirely  by  the  gross  weight, 
regardless  of  value.  A  crude  protectionist  idea 
pervades  the  schedules  in  some  particulars — perhaps 
the  rate  is  raised  a  bit  above  the  already  high 
charges  on  similar  products  in  order  to  foster  infant 
domestic  industries — cotton  goods  and  shoes,  sugar, 
wheat,  flour,  and  the  like  ;  but  in  general  the  tariff 
is  for  revenue  with  a  vengeance.  The  duties  on 
luxuries  and  necessities  alike,  in  order  to  amass 
income  to  run  the  Government,  are  made  as  high 
as  possible,  just  stopping  short,  occasionally  even 
overstepping  the  limit,  where  the  layer  of  the  golden 
egg  will  be  entirely  killed.  It  is  difficult  for  the 
merchants  of  the  country  to  arouse  the  politicians 
to  the  needs  of  the  situation  :  in  every  land  the 
problem  is  difficult,  but  in  Colombia  especially  the 
subject  is  too  readily  shirked  and  the  much-needed 
tariff  reform  seems  as  distant  as  ever.  Fear  of 
decreasing  the  revenues,  probably  groundless,  is  the 
great  deterrent.  With  the  present  system  the 
Government  knows  more  or  less  what  to  expect  ;  if 
an  ad  valorem  basis  be  adopted,  it  is  argued,  skilled 

'  See  Report  of  British  Consulate  at  Medellin,  reprinted  in  Daily 
Consular  Reports  (Washington),  August  21,  1912  ;  and  the  very  valu- 
able Report  on  Trade  Conditions  in  Colombia,  by  Charles  M.  Pepper, 
of  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labour,  Washington,  1907. 


134  COLOMBIA 

appraisers  would  be  required,  and  Colombia  could 
not  supply  them — the  cost  of  administration  and  of 
collection  would  be  augmented,  frauds  might  increase, 
and  there  is  no  telling  what  even  the  gross  revenues 
might  be.  At  the  present  time  the  only  ad  valorem 
duty  is  on  precious  stones,  which  pay  lo  per  cent.  ; 
all  other  articles  are  ranged  within  sixteen  classes, 
the  first  including  such  things  as  rough  timber,  rails, 
machinery  of  all  kinds  weighing  over  three  tons, 
construction  materials,  and  live  animals,  which  are 
admitted  free  ;  the  second  class  pays  duty  of  $.017 
gold  a  kilogram,  and  so  on,  up  to  the  sixteenth,  on 
which  the  duty  is  $2.55  a  kilogram  :  still  higher, 
though  in  this  case  reasonable,  is  the  duty  on  cigars, 
not  included  in  the  sixteen  general  classes — $3.00  a 
kilogram.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  duty 
is  calculated  on  the  gross  weight,  including  all 
wrappings  and  packings,  necessarily  heavy  on  account 
of  the  transportation  and  climate  risks,  it  will  be 
seen  how  exorbitant  the  tariff  can  be.  The  schedules 
make  no  distinctions  of  quality  or  value  ;  cheap 
shoes,  rancid  butter,  inferior  silks  pay  at  the  same 
rate  per  kilo  as  the  finest  and  most  expensive.  Many 
articles  of  many  brands  are  consequently  practically 
excluded.  There  are  other  inconveniences,  too.  The 
invoice  and  entry  requirements  are  technical  and 
complicated,  and  violation,  however  honest  the 
mistake,  results  in  heavy  fines. 

Then  there  are  differential  duties  at  some  ports. 
All  schedules  bear  a  surtax  of  70  per  cent.  Buena- 
ventura pays  only  75  per  cent,  of  the  original  rates, 
plus  the  70  per  cent.,  Tumaco  only  50  per  cent.  ; 
Cucuta  pays  a  surtax  of  35  per  cent.,  not  70  per 
cent.,  and  so  forth,  to  bewilderment.  The  logical 
consequence  is  a  system  of  interior  customs  duties  so 
as  to  protect  one  zone  which  pays  the  highest  duties 
from  being  invaded  by  certain  classes  of  goods 
imported  at  a  place  that  benefits  by  a  reduced  rate. 


COMMERCE  135 

And  still  other  octrois  are  in  force  to  provide  revenue 
for  local  governmental  subdivisions,  as  if  the  diffi- 
culties of  transportation  were  not  impediment  enough 
to  trade. 

Despite  all,  the  domestic  interchange  of  products 
betvi^een  departments  is  not  inconsiderable.  Long 
ago,  Reclus  observed  :  '*  Settled  in  their  high  Andine 
citadels,  the  Colombians  divide  the  work  of  agri- 
culture and  industry  in  such  wise  as  to  be  self- 
sufficing  by  the  domestic  interchange  of  products. 
The  cessation  of  all  overseas  commerce  between 
Colombia  and  Europe  would  not  result  in  any  great 
inconvenience  from  the  purely  material  point  of 
view  :  her  citizens  would  go  without  luxurious 
furniture  and  would  content  themselves  with  coarser 
clothing.  The  importance  of  their  interior  commerce 
gives  to  the  growing  foreign  relations  a  basis  of 
remarkable  solidity."  In  addition  to  clothing,  live- 
stock and  articles  of  food— salt,  sugar,  coffee,  cacao 
and  chocolate,  wheat— furnish  the  chief  movement 
in  domestic  trade. 

It  is  always  interesting  to  follow  the  course  of 
merchandise  to  the  ultimate  consumer.  In  the  largest 
towns,  as  we  have  seen,  there  may  be  no  need  of 
middlemen,  the  importers  being  themselves  the 
retailers  ;  but  at  their  very  side  will  flourish  on  their 
own  small  scale  the  little  shops  or  tiendas  patronized 
by  the  lower  classes,  which,  while  dealing  rather 
in  native  products,  will,  nevertheless,  retail  some 
of  the  cheaper  imported  goods  bought  from  their 
neighbours — cotton  prints,  hardware,  and  the  like. 
A  more  valuable  customer  for  the  general  store  and 
importer  is  the  shopkeeper  from  a  neighbouring  town 
or  village,  or  from  a  distance  of  several  days  maybe, 
whose  business,  while  large  compared  with  that  of 
the  tiendecita,  is  not  voluminous  enough,  or  his 
ability,  experience,  or  initiative  too  limited,  to 
warrant  his  entering  into  direct  relations  with  foreign 


136  COLOMBIA 

firms.  Occasionally  he  may  send  in  an  order  by 
mail  or  courier  to  some  general  store  he  is  in  the 
habit  of  patronizing,  but,  as  a  rule,  he  will  make 
periodical  visits  to  the  city  to  buy  a  stock  of  general 
merchandise,  as  much  as  his  purse  or  credit  will 
procure,  and  personally  supervise  its  carriage.  This 
stock  will  last  him  two  or  three  months,  or  perhaps 
six  months  or  a  year  if  he  is  very  far  away.  If 
one  line  of  articles  becomes  exhausted  before  the 
rest  of  his  stock  is  sufficiently  depleted  to  warrant 
another  trip  to  the  city,  he  will  make  no  effort  to 
replenish  it,  but  will  be  quite  content  to  answer  a 
would-be  purchaser  with  that  ever-recurring  phrase, 
*'  No  hay,  sehor!  "  ("  There  isn't  any,  sir  !  "),  and 
the  purchaser,  after  making  the  round  of  the  other 
shops,  if  any,  in  the  particular  town  and  getting 
probably  the  same  answer,  will  do  without  his  shirt 
or  his  mousetrap,  or  paper  and  ink,  whichever  it 
was  he  was  after,  also  apparently  quite  contented 
unless  he  be  a  foreigner,  who  will  say,  "  You  never 
can  get  anything  in  this  blessed  country,"  which 
remark,  if  his  residence  in  the  country  be  of  long 
duration,  he  will  have  made  several  dozen  times 
before  and  gone  away  at  heart  as  patient  and 
contented    as    the    native. 

The  wholesalers  may  have,  though  rarely,  retail 
branches  of  their  own  in  the  smaller  towns,  but  they 
never  send  out  drummers  ;  to  a  small  extent  these 
are  replaced  by  itinerant  traders  {antioquehos  mostly, 
loquacious,  sociable  fellows,  shrewd  as  they  make 
them,  dearly  loving  a  joke  but  more  dearly  a  bargain, 
ever  ready  to  swap  a  story,  a  horse,  or  a  stock  oif 
goods)  who  go  from  town  to  town  with  their  wares, 
buying  here,  selling  there,  as  opportunity  offers. 
Then  there  are  the  markets  and  the  fairs  :  the  impor- 
tance of  a  town  is  gauged  by  the  attendance  at  its 
markets,  held  on  stated  days  once  a  week,  Sundays 
usually,  or  perhaps  twice  a  week.     The  countryfolk, 


MARKET   AT   BARRAXQUILLA. 


MARKET   AT   CARTAGO. 


To  face  p.  136, 


COMMERCE  137 

rising  at  dawn,  will  bring  the  products  of  their  fields 
or  their  fingers  to  market,  the  whole  family  coming 
ambling  along  by  the  side  of  their  heavily  laden 
horses  or  mules  ;  the  less  fortunate  ones  will 
bring  their  truck  on  their  backs  or  jauntily  balanced 
— this  the  women— on  their  heads.  The  distance  they 
will  often  trudge  to  market  to  sell  their  shilling's 
worth  is  incredible — the  Indians  especially  will  come 
their  15  or  20  miles  on  foot  and  then  back  again  at 
night  to  their  little  mountain  abodes.  The  fairs  are 
gatherings  held  at  the  more  important  towns  when- 
ever the  local  spirit  every  year  or  two  moves. 
Dealers  come  from  far  and  wide.  Cattle  trading 
is  the  chief  business,  but  gambling  and  drinking  seem 
the  principal  occupations.  One  or  two  of  these  fairs, 
like  that  of  Pereira,  held  with  greater  regularity,  have 
acquired  fame,  and  a  very  important  volume  of  trade 
is  carried  on  during  the  one  or  two  weeks  they  last. 
There  is  much  then  that  is  primitive  in  the  business 
methods  still  in  vogue  in  Colombia.  In  the  remote 
interior  towns  much  survives  of  the  old  customs  of 
the  Spanish  colonial  days,  and  as  far  as  many  places 
are  concerned  whose  isolation  is  likely  to  continue, 
such  a  picture  as  we  have  drawn  will  probably  remain 
on  the  canvas  for  several  generations  more. 


CHAPTER    X 
AGRICULTURE ' 

To  form  an  idea  of  the  agriculture  and  the  agricul- 
tural products  of  Colombia  the  reader  must  free  his 
mind  of  any  idea  that  it  is  wholly  a  tropical  country. 
Of  course,  it  is  situated  in  the  tropics,  and  the  first 
sight  the  traveller  has  of  the  country  is  undoubtedly 
tropical,  but  climate  and  temperature  are  a  matter  of 
elevation.  From  this  standpoint,  agricultural  Colom- 
bia can  be  considered  as  divided  into  four  zones  : 
first,  the  coast  zone,  both  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific, 
very  hot  and  damp  all  the  year  round  ;  second,  the 
hinterland  and  valleys  to  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet  ; 
third,  the  low  hills  and  first  ranges  of  the  Andes  to 
an  elevation  of  6,000  feet  ;  and  fourth,  the  higher 
ranges  and  plateaux  from  6,000  feet  up. 

Climatic  conditions  are  entirely  difi'erent  in  all 
these  zones  and  even  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
coasts.  In  the  former  the  seasons  are  well  marked  : 
from  December  to  May  dry,  and  from  June  to 
November  wet  and  very  wet.  On  the  Pacific  coast  it 
rains  practically  every  day  in  the  year.  Both  are 
hot  and  damp,  the  temperature  going  every  day  to 
95°  F.  This  also  refers  to  the  Magdalena  Valley  as 
far  up  as  Girardot. 

•  This  chapter  has  been  written  by  Mr.  Charles  J.  Eder,  whose 
experience  of  over  twenty  years  as  manager  of  large  plantations 
and  cattle  ranches  in  Colombia  quahfies  him  to  speak  with 
authority. 

138 


AGRICULTURE  139 

In  the  second  zone,  such  as  the  Cauca  Valley,  con- 
ditions are  entirely  different  ;  two  dry  and  two  wet 
seasons  alternate,  January,  February,  and  March  dry  ; 
April,  May,  and  June  wet  ;  July,  August,  and  Septem- 
ber dry  ;  and  October,  November,  and  December  wet. 
Temperature  varies  between  64°  and  84°  every  day, 
with  an  average  of   76°  F. 

The  third  zone  is  about  the  same  as  the  second  as 
regards  rains,  but  these  are  somewhat  more  frequent. 
Temperature  ranges  at  6,000  feet  from  58°  to  72°. 

In  the  fourth  zone,  from  6,000  to  9,000  feet,  the 
temperature  ranges  at  the  latter  elevation  from  40° 
to   640,  with  occasional  frosts. 

The  Pacific  coast  zone  is  only  suitable  for  tagua 
and  rubber,  on  account  of  the  practically  constant 
rains.  Plantains,  bananas,  and  corn  are  raised,  but 
on  a  very  small  scale.  Towards  the  south  the  climate 
changes  again  and  has  less  rain,  and  here  are  seen, 
besides  the  products  mentioned,  some  cattle.  There 
does  not  seem  to  be  an  immediate  future  in  this 
section,  due  to  unfavourable  climatic  conditions  and 
the  very  sparse  population.  On  the  Atlantic  coast 
and  in  the  Magdalena  Valley  are  raised  bananas, 
tagua,  rubber,  cacao,  sugar  cane,  corn,  and  cattle. 
This  latter  was  at  one  time  quite  a  large  industry  in 
the  llanos,  which  for  our  purpose  can  be  classed  with 
the  Atlantic  zone.  These  llanos,  Casanare,  San 
Martin,  Bolivar,  Ayapel,  together  with  the  Magdalena 
Valley  and  to  the  south  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  are 
immense  plains  covered  with  grass,  said  to  be  excel- 
lent for  grazing  cattle,  and  certainly  some  of  the 
stock  from  them  seems  to  prove  this.  The  industry 
has  declined  very  much,  however,  and  the  population 
is  scanty. 

The  second  zone  seems  to  be  especially  adapted 
for  sugar  cane,  coffee,  cacao,  corn,  cotton,  and 
cattle  :  the  third  zone  for  coffee,  corn,  beans, 
yucca,  arracacha,  cotton,  cattle,  and  table  vegetables  : 


140  COLOMBIA 

the  fourth  zone  for  all  the  last  named,  and  in 
addition  wheat,  barley  and  the  other  cereals,  and 
potatoes. 

Agriculture  as  a  science  is  not  known  in  Colombia 
with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  isolated  cases. 
Where  it  seems  to  be  most  developed  is  on  the 
savannah  of  Bogota,  where  one  can  see  some  ploughs, 
cultivators,  and  harvesting  machinery  in  operation 
(American  manufacture).  The  chief  agricultural 
pursuits  are  as  follows,  in  the  order  named  as  to  their 
importance  :  Grazing  of  cattle  both  for  breeding 
and  fattening  ;  the  breeding  industry,  including 
horses  and  mules  ;  plaintains,  corn,  beans,  sugar, 
coffee,  wheat,  bananas  (as  distinguished  from  plain- 
tains),  vegetables  in  the  high  lands,  especially  pota- 
toes, yuccas,  arracachas,  cereals  ;  also  in  the  high 
lands,  hats,  cacao,  and  cotton.  The  natural  products, 
such  as  rubber  and  tagua,  copal  gum,  cocoanuts,  I 
do  not  take  into  consideration  at  all,  as  it  is  impos- 
sible to  form  an  idea  as  to  their  value,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  tagua.  Then  follow,  on  a  very  small  scale, 
rice  and  goat  and  sheep  raising.  Swine,  of  course, 
are  raised,  but  I  hardly  know  where  to  put  them 
in  their  order  of  importance,  as  practically  every 
small  farmer  has  one  or  more,  but  they  are  rarely 
raised  in  quantities. 

•We  will  now  take  up  each  industry  separately. 

Cattle. — The  industry  of  horned  cattle  is  un- 
doubtedly the  largest  of  any  in  Colombia,  being 
found  all  over  the  country,  both  in  the  hot  valleys 
and  the  cool  highlands.  As  there  are  no  statistics 
it  is  impossible  to  give  any  figures  concerning  the 
total  number  in  the  country.  Some  States  have  pub- 
lished statistics  concerning  the  number  supposed  to 
exist  in  them,  but  there  is  no  relying  on  these  figures, 
as  Colombians  have  had  too  many  revolutions  and 
are  too  much  afraid  of  taxes  to  give  the  correct  data, 
thinking  it  is  either  for  confiscation  or  taxes  that  the 


AGRICULTURE  141 

authorities  want  these  figures  ;  and  perhaps  they  are 
right.  The  stock  as  such  is  not  bad,  but  hardly  any 
attempts  are  made  to  improve  the  breed.  There  are 
a  few  exceptions  around  Bogota,  where  Durhams  and 
Polled  Angus  have  been  imported,  and  in  Medellin  a 
few  Ayrshire,  and  in  the  Cauca  Valley  one  attempt 
only  to  improve  the  breed  with  an  imported  Indian 
bull,  which  so  far  has  given  good  results.  It  is 
practically  impossible  to  acclimate  good  stock  from 
Bogota  in  the  hot  countries,  as,  it  never  being  hot 
or  even  warm  in  the  former  place,  it  gives  better 
results  to  import  from  the  south  of  the  United  States 
towards  the  close  of  the  summer  there.  In  Bogoti 
climate  conditions  and  food  are  such  that  good  stock 
can  be  easily  fed  as  in  its  native  home,  and  it  does 
not  suffer  from  heat  or  any  obnoxious  insects.  The 
difficulty  is  getting  the  stock  there,  and  the  risks  are 
very  great. 

A  fully  grown  native  steer,  well  fattened,  will  weigh 
some  1,200  lb.  on  the  hoof.  Of  course  there  are 
exceptions,  especially  with  some  crossed  breeds. 
Then  again  weights  depend  upon  where  the  stock 
comes  from.  Undoubtedly  it  is  around  Bogota,  due 
to  imported  blood,  good  climate  and  good  feed,  that 
the  best  stock  is  seen,  whereas  in  the  south  of 
Colombia  around  Pasto  is  probably  where  the  worst 
is  found.  The  principal  breeding  centres  are  :  the 
llanos,  the  Cauca  Valley,  and  the  Patia  Valley. 
Absolutely  no  care  is  bestowed  on  the  animals  ;  the 
cows  graze  and  drop  their  calves  out  in  the  open, 
and  large  herds  of  steers  fatten  with  only  one  man 
to  look  after  them.  When  any  animal  dies  it  is 
always  "  pest."  The  most  careful  owners  only  give 
salt  once  a  month  and  every  now  and  then  take 
out  a  few  maggots.  Colombians  being  great  be- 
lievers in  Providence,  it  is  only  natural  that  they 
should  leave  the  care  of  their  stock  to  the  Lord, 
Only  lately  have  a  few  owners  been  taking  measures 


142  COLOMBIA 

towards  the  prevention  of  symptomatic  charbon 
(blackleg).  Hardly  any  attempt  is  made  to  prevent 
the  pest  of  ticks,  which  is  very  prevalent  in  certain 
sections  of  the  country,  especially  Tolima.  Here 
the  method  is  to  burn  the  grass  every  year  with 
the  object  of  burning  the  ticks. 

Dairying  is  in  a  very  primitive  state.  Cows  give 
only  an  average  of  two  quarts  of  milk  a  day,  and  do 
not  give  up  their  milk  unless  the  calf  is  tied  to  them. 
Cheese  is  too  good  a  name  for  the  stuff  that  is 
turned  out.  The  following  is  the  method  of  manu- 
facture :  the  milk  is  put  in  a  long,  narrow  dug- 
out, cut  out  from  the  log  of  a  tree,  then  the  rennet 
(calves'  stomach)  is  immersed  and  is  moved  along 
in  this  dug-out  for  a  few  minutes  and  then  allowed 
to  stand  until  the  milk  curdles.  Once  curdled  it 
is  pressed  down  by  hand  until  the  whey  rises,  and 
when  this  has  all  been  removed  the  stuff  remaining, 
called  cheese,  is  rubbed  continually  for  about  half 
an  hour  with  the  hands,  and  when  of  sufficient  con- 
sistency coarse  salt  is  added  and  the  mass  is  pressed 
in  wooden  moulds  of  different  sizes.  This,  strange  to 
say,  sells  at  an  average  price  of  15  c.  a  pound,  ranging 
as  low  as  10  c.  and  as  high  as  30  c.  Butter  in  most 
towns  is  a  luxury,  being  worth  as  much  as  60  to 
70  c.  a  pound,  in  the  Cauca,  for  a  whitish  rancid 
substance  given   this  name. 

It  is  mostly  in  these  so-called  dairies  that  blackleg 
is  prevalent,  as  the  calves  are  separated  from  the 
cows  at  about  3  or  4  p.m.  in  small  pens  where  there 
generally  is  nothing  to  eat  or  drink.  Next  morning 
about  5  a.m.  the  cows  are  driven  into  a  corral 
without  shade,  and  milking  is  continued  until  1 2  or 
I  p.m.,  the  animals  in  the  meantime  having  nothing 
to  eat  or  drink.  In  the  dry  season  these  corrals  are 
covered  with  six  inches  of  dust  and  in  the  rainy 
season  with  twelve  inches  of  mud. 

Cattle    prices    are   going   up    continually,    a    good 


AGRICULTUKE  143 

cow  with  calf  being  worth  from  $50  to  $60,  one- 
year-old  calves  $20,  and  fat  steers  from  $50  to 
$60.  Profits  are  large,  since,  as  already  stated,  no 
care  or  expense  is  bestowed  on  the  animals,  three 
or  four  men  being  sufficient  to  look  after  a  great 
many.  Above  conditions  and  prices  refer  to  the 
Cauca  Valley,  but  the  general  method  of  managing 
stock  is  the  same  all  over  the  country. 

Hides  constitute  a  valuable  article  for  export, 
amounting  in  191  i  to  4,449,475  kilos  (roughly, 
406,000  hides,  valued  at  $1,779,790)  ;  besides,  the 
native  industry  of  tanning  seems  to  be  fairly  well 
developed,    especially   in    Pasto. 

I  think  there  will  be  a  great  development  of  the 
cattle  industry  in  the  near  future  as  meat  becomes 
dearer  and  dearer  in  the  United  States.  The  llanos 
offer  a  good  field,  as  they  are  well  situated,  with  easy 
access  to  the  ports  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  where  pack- 
ing houses  may  be  built  one  of  these  days.  The 
Cauca  Valley,  some  of  the  Tolima  plains,  and  the 
Patia  Valley,  and  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  seem  to  be  especially  adapted  for  breeding 
cattle,  but  the  difficulties  of  getting  to  the  coast  are 
still  great. 

Good  para  pastures  in  the  Cauca  are  worth  quite 
$28  per  acre,  and  hold  one  and  a  half  head  per  acre. 
Profits  range  from  $8  to  $12  per  head  per  year, 
so  the  returns  may  be  reckoned  at  $15  per  acre 
per  year,  with  the  great  advantage  that  practically 
no  labour  is  needed  once  the  grass  is  in  good 
condition. 

In  the  colder  regions  up  in  the  hills,  fattening  in 
pastures  of  clover  and  rye-grass  seems  to  give 
excellent  results,  with  a  yield  perhaps  better  than 
para. 

All  these  pastures  last  for  years,  perhaps  one 
hundred  and  more,  with  practically  no  care  except- 
ing  every   now   and   then   a  cleaning   of   the   weeds. 


144  COLOMBIA 

If  in  poor  condition,  a  cleaning,  then  burning  and 
allowing  them  to  rest  during  the  rainy  season  for 
three  or  four  months,  seems  to  restore  them  to  a 
good  condition  again. 

Horse  and  mule  breeding  is  not  quite  so  exten- 
sive. Around  Bogotd,  Percherons,  Hackneys,  Studs, 
and  very  good  Spanish  and  French  Jacks  have  been 
imported.  Good  large-sized  saddle  mules  are  in 
great  demand,  and  worth  anywhere  from  ^150  to 
$300  each,  according  to  their  gait.  In  the  Cauca 
a  Hackney  and  some  Peruvian  studs  (famous  for 
their  easy  riding  gait)  have  been  imported,  as  also 
some  Percherons  from  Bogotd,  but  these  latter  are 
not  a  success  where  the  climate  is  hot.  Ordinary 
cargo  mules  are  worth  from  S50  to  $60,  according  to 
size.  Horses  range  from  S30  for  cargo  purposes 
to  as  high  as  $400  for  good  easy-going  saddle 
animals.  The  breed  is  practically  Arab  where 
attention  has  been  paid  to  picking  out  the  sires. 
Generally  they  are  small,  a  fourteen-hand  horse  being 
considered  big.  They  are  strong  and  can  stand 
quite  a  deal  of  riding,  especially  considering  that 
no  care  is  bestowed  on  them.  Mares  vary  from 
$20  to  as  high  as  $120  when  of  a  good  size  and 
saddle-broken  with   an  easy  gait. 

Plantains  .—This,  is  the  staple  food  of  all  the 
people  in  the  hot  countries,  and  there  is  not  a  farm 
or  yard  where  some  are  not  grown,  although  it 
should  not  be  called  cultivation,  as  the  stump  used 
for  propagating  is  simply  stuck  in  the  ground  and 
allowed  to  grow.  Every  now  and  then  the  weeds 
are  cleared,  and  when  the  fruit  is  ripe  it  is  cut  down, 
and  the  suckers  grow  until  they  in  their  turn  bear 
their  fruit  and  are  cut  down,  and  so  on  for  years. 
Rich  and  poor  alike  eat  plantains,  either  green,  half, 
or  fully  ripe  ;  the  first  for  making  soup  and  the  others 
as  vegetables,  either  boiled,  fried,  or  roasted,  or  in 
lieu    of    bread.      This    is    essentially    a    poor   man's 


AGRICULTURE  145 

crop,  although  large  profits  are  made  at  times. 
Under  unfavourable  weather  conditions  the  price  of 
this  staple  goes  up  as  high  as  $1.50  the  guango 
(about  sixty-four  plantains).  Needless  to  say  that 
plantains  will  not  grow  above  an  elevation  of  6,000 
feet,  and  at  this  elevation  the  quality  is  poor. 
Plantains  need  a  hot  climate  and  a  damp  soil  to 
develop  and  bear  well. 

Maize. — This  is  cultivated  all  over  Colombia,  from 
the  sea  coasts  to  the  highest  altitudes.  People  living 
in  these  latter  sections  eat  more  corn  than  those 
living  in  the  warm  sections.  In  the  high  elevations 
only  one  crop  a  year  is  obtained,  whereas  from 
sea-level  to  3,000  feet  two  crops  a  year  are  easily 
produced,  and  I  believe  in  certain  favoured  sections, 
under  proper  cultivation  and  irrigation,  three  crops 
should  be  no  difficult  matter.  No  pretence  is  made 
to  a  rational  cultivation.  The  method  is  as  follows  : 
the  wood,  brush,  or  weeds  are  burned,  and  then 
the  seed  planted  in  holes  made  with  a  stick  of  wood 
at  distances  varying  from  three  to  six  feet,  according 
to  the  soil,  and  two  or  three  seeds  to  the  hole.  Three 
weeks  after  planting,  a  cleaning  is  given  by  hand 
with  a  small  shovel  to  remove  the  weeds,  and  lo 
and  behold  !  five  months  after  you  crop  as  good 
a  crop  as  you  can  take  off  in  the  States.  This,  of 
course,  refers  to  the  rich  and  fertile  valleys  and 
not  to  the  hills.  In  these  latter,  the  returns  are 
not  as  large,  although  two  crops  a  year  are 
gathered  ;  but  there  is  the  advantage  of  being  able 
to  keep  the  corn  longer,  as  it  is  not  so  prone  to 
weevils.  Generally  speaking  there  are  no  estates 
devoted  especially  and  exclusively,  exception  made 
of  some  near  Bogota,  to  corn  on  a  big  scale.  Corn 
is  not  fed  to  stock,  and  to  horses  only  on  a  small 
scale,  and  these  belonging  to  rich  owners.  One  of 
these  days  there  will  be  a  rich  field  in  this  line,  when 
land  becomes  more  valuable  and  perhaps  when  the 

11 


146  COLOMBIA 

corn  can  be  exported,  and  grazing  will  have  to  give 
way  to  feeding  stock  scientifically.  To-day  corn  is 
only  raised  as  food  for  human  beings.  Prices  vary 
very  much,  like  everything  else  in  Colombia,  due  to 
lack  of  good  roads  ;  in  some  parts  of  the  country 
the  price  may  be  so  low  that  it  hardly  pays  the 
farmer,  and  at  the  same  time,  in  others,  it  will  be 
as   high   as   $3.20  a   bushel. 

Beans  are  extensively  cultivated  in  some  sections, 
such  as  Antioquia,  where  they  constitute  the  staple 
food,  together  with  corn.  No  cultivation  whatever 
exists  on  large  estates,  every  small  settler  planting 
a  small   patch.      They  grow  practically  everywhere. 

Sugar. — This  is  without  doubt  the  greatest 
favourite,  after  cattle,  of  all  products  in  Colombia, 
as  everywhere  all  over  the  country,  from  the  coast 
to  as  high  an  elevation  as  the  cane  will  grow, 
6,000  to  7,000  feet,  one  meets  with  sugar-cane 
patches  and  plantations. 

This  industry  is  still  in  a  very  primitive  condition, 
with  two  exceptions  :  Sincerin,  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
near  Cartagena,  and  La  Manuelita,  in  the  Cauca 
Valley.  Both  these  are  modern  up-to-date  factories, 
with  double  crushers,  triple  effects,  vacuum  pans, 
centrifugals,  etc.  The  others  all  range  from  little 
hand-mills  made  of  pieces  of  round  wood  and  horse- 
power vertical  mills  to  mills  driven  by  water- 
power.  With  the  exception  of  the  two  factories 
mentioned,  the  method  of  manufacture  is  the  same 
in  all  :  open  evaporation  and  the  sugar  cleaned 
by  means  of  mud  allowed  to  percolate  slowly  through 
the  masse-cuite  in  earthen  moulds  of  a  conical 
shape.  Cured  thus  two  or  three  times,  the  moulds 
are  turned  over,  and  the  result  is  what  is  called 
loaf  sugar,  more  or  less  white  and  rather  more  than 
less   dirty   and   full   of   impurities. 

The  sections  where  sugar-cane  seems  to  grow  best 
and  is  most  developed  are,  in  the  order  named,  the 


AGRICULTURE  147 

Cauca  Valley,  Cundinamarca,  Santander,  Antioquia, 
and  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  Cauca  has  the  advantage 
both  of  climate  and  of  level  ground,  whereas  in  the 
next  three  States  mentioned  the  areas  given  over  lo 
its  cultivation  are  generally  broken,  the  level  parts 
being  comparatively  very  small.  On  the  Atlantic 
coast  the  crops  have  to  be  taken  ojff  the  same  as 
in  Cuba  and  the  other  Antilles,  that  is,  from  Decem- 
ber to  May,  as  from  June  on  the  heavy  rains  prevent 
regular  work.  In  the  Cauca  climatic  conditions  are 
very  favourable,  although  it  takes  the  cane  longer 
to  mature — fifteen  to  eighteen  months,  as  there  are 
four  seasons,  two  dry  and  two  wet,  alternately.  It  is 
sometimes  found  profitable,  however,  to  cut  at  twelve 
to  fifteen  months.  Reaping  and  manufacture  of 
sugar  go  on  all  the  year  round.  During  the  most 
rainy  seasons,  in  the  months  of  April  and  November, 
perhaps  work  may  be  delayed,  but  never  actually 
stopped,  for  three  or  four  days  in  each  month.  On 
the  Atlantic  coast  the  heat  and  humidity  are  very 
great,  whereas  in  the  Cauca  it  is  never  oppressive. 
In  the  other  States  mentioned  perhaps  the  tempera- 
ture is  a  little  too  low  during  the  nights  to  get 
the  full  benefit  from  this  plant,  and  the  lack  of  big 
valleys  militates  against  its  development  on  a  large 
scale.  On  the  Atlantic  coast,  outside  of  Sincerin 
and  small  plantations  in  the  Santa  Marta  section, 
it  cannot  be  said  to  be  extensively  cultivated. 

The  tonnage  per  acre  in  the  Cauca  in  favourable 
years  is  as  much  as  So  tons  of  cane,  without  any 
other  cultivation  given  than  a  mere  hand-cleaning 
with  small  shovels.  The  lowest  average  known, 
due  to  iprolonged  drought  and  locusts,  is  24 
tons  per  acre,  and  under  normal  conditions  the 
average  is  50  tons  to  the  acre.  No  fertilizers  or 
manures  of  any  kind  are  applied  ;  but  the  soil  is 
so  fertile  that  there  are  still  plantations  under  cultiva- 
tion that  are  known  to  have  given  cane  continuously 


148  COLOMBIA 

for  a  hundred  and  twenty  years.  The  usual  run  of  cane 
is  of  very  good  purity,  and  produces  very  good  sugar. 
In  exceptional  years  I  have  seen  canes  20  feet  long, 
without  the  tops,  and  of  fair  diameter.  I  have 
seen  time  and  again  canes  3|-  inches  diameter.  White 
sugar  for  home  consumption  can  be  turned  out  in 
the  Cauca  for  if  c.  per  pound,  and  export  sugar  with 
good  machinery   for    ij  c.    per  pound. 

This  industry  requires  a  good  deal  of  labour,  but 
in  the  more  populated  sections  of  the  country  little 
difficulty  is  found,  as  the  peon  likes  to  work  on 
sugar  plantations,  as  he  can  and  does  chew  pretty 
well  all  the  cane  he  can  hold,  and,  judging  from 
appearances,  he  seems  satisfied  to  be  able  to  fill 
himself  up  with  cane  juice.  He  would  prefer 
aguardiente,  but  fortunately  this  is  a  Government 
monopoly  and  is  expensive.  The  by-products  from 
sugar  factories  have  no  outlet  except  as  food  for 
stock  and  for  the  little  denatured  alcohol  and  the 
aguardiente  distilled  under  Government  contracts  or 
sub-contracts. 

Very  little  molasses  is  fed  to  stock,  so  there  is  a 
good  field  for  some  enterprising  stock-raiser  to  fatten 
cattle  with  this  at  low  prices  when  sugar  is  cheap. 
There  may  be  a  field  for  alcohol  for  motors  and 
lighting  purposes,  but  this  is  rather  remote,  as  the 
education  the  Colombian  receives,  when  he  receives 
any  at  all,  is  along  anything  but  mechanical  lines, 
and  a  good  many  years  will  pass  before  the  care 
of  an  internal  combustion  engine,  or  any  other  kind 
of  engine,  can  be  entrusted  to  him. 

Where  perhaps  the  greatest  area  of  cane  is  under 
cultivation  is  in  Cundinamarca,  but  for  the  purpose 
not  of  making  sugar  but  syrup,  which  is  then 
fermented  with  corn  and  called  "  chicha.''  This 
beverage  is  very  popular  with  the  working  classes, 
and  they  get  drunk  on  it  as  often  as  they  can.  This 
form   of   intoxication   seems   to    be   about    the    worst 


AGRICULTURE  149 

of  all,  as  it  not  only  brutalizes  the  people,  but 
renders    them    exceedingly    stupid    in    a    short    time. 

Panela. — The  manufacture  of  this  article  of  food 
(it  looks  and  tastes  very  much  like  maple  sugar)  is 
quite  large  all  over  Colombia,  although  each 
individual  mill  is  very  small,  the  biggest  of  them 
being  horse-power.  It  is  made  from  sea-level  to 
altitudes  of  6,000  feet,  and  the  acreage  under 
cultivation  must  be  very  big.  The  process  of  manu- 
facture is  simple  :  the  cane  juice  is  boiled  in  open 
evaporators  until  sufficiently  thick,  then  it  is  run 
into  wooden  moulds,  where  it  hardens  into  cakes 
weighing  i  lb.  each.  As  an  article  of  food  it  is 
superior  to  sugar,  and  forms  a  great  staple  for  all 
classes. 

Coffee  can  be  and  is  grown  from  a  few  hundred  feet 
above  sea-level  to  about  7,000  feet.  As  an  article 
of  export  it  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  products 
in  Colombia.  It  is  cultivated  pretty  well  all  over 
the  country,  and  especially  in  Cundinamarca, 
Santander,  Antioquia,  Caldas,  Cauca,  Tolima,  and 
on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  probably 
in  the  order  named, 

A  good  deal  of  Santander  coffee  exported  through 
Venezuela  reaches  the  market  under  the  name  of 
Maracaibo.  The  total  annual  exportations  from 
Colombia  are  about  600,000  sacks,  worth  about 
ten  million  dollars.  Home  consumption  is  quite  an 
item,  as  the  Colombians  are  great  coffee-drinkers. 
Exports  in  191 1,  from  official  figures,  were 
37,899,968  kilos,  valued  at  $9,500,000.  Of  this 
407,932  kilos,  valued  at  $109,568  (about  6,000 
sacks),  were  exported  from  Santa  Marta  ;  Caldas 
exports  about  90,000  sacks,  and  the  Cauca  about 
30,000.  I  have  not  been  able  to  get  the  figures 
for  the  other  States. 

The  coffee  grown  in  the  higher  altitudes  is  milder 
and   fetches    a    higher    price,    but   the   trees    do   not 


150  COLOMBIA 

bear  as  much  nor  do  they  last  as  long.  It  is  easier, 
too,  to  form  a  plantation  at  elevations  from  5,000 
feet  up,  as  there  is  no  need  for  shade  trees,  which 
are  necessary  at  the  lower  elevations.  Very  few 
plantations  exist  below  2,000  feet,  as  the  climate 
as  a  rule  is  too  damp  and  population  scarce — great 
drawbacks,  as  coffee  needs  a  lot  of  labour  at  crop 
time,  and  when  the  climate  is  damp  there  is  too 
much  difficulty  in  drying. 

The  returns  from  plantations  vary  very  much, 
depending  on  the  price  of  freights  and  also  on  the 
labour  obtainable  at  crop  times,  as  it  is  a  strange 
thing  that  most  labourers  are  decidedly  averse  to 
working  in  coffee  plantations,  probably  due  to  the 
dampness  and  lack  of  pure  air  in  them.  Water,  too, 
seems  to  become  polluted  from  so  much  vegetation 
and  from  the  skins  of  the  pulped  fruit.  As  with 
other  crops,  practically  no  cultivation  is  undertaken 
except  cleaning  off  the  weeds  either  with  a  shovel 
or  machetes  two  or  three  times  a  year.  In  some 
sections  pruning  is  undertaken,  but,  as  a  rule, 
without  method,  so  that  more  harm  than  good  is 
done. 

It  takes  from  three  to  four  years  for  trees  to 
begin  to  bear,  and  they  do  not  reach  their  full 
maturity  till  about  six  years  old.  The  average  pro- 
duction is  about  I  lb.  per  tree  a  year,  except 
in  some  exceptional  plantations  where  irrigation  and 
good  cultivation  are  applied.  Water  is  the  most 
necessary  thing  to  produce  good  crops,  as  this 
plant  exacts  plenty  of  it  and  at  the  right  time. 
Under  favourable  conditions  and  with  fair  cultiva- 
tion a  plantation  will  give  as  much  as  2^  lb. 
per  tree  a  year.  Two  crops  are  taken  off^  every 
year  :  the  principal  one  in  March  or  April,  and  a 
smaller  one  in  October  or  November.  Small 
pickings  go  on  all  the  year  through.  It  is  no 
uncommon   sight   to   see   trees   bearing   at   the   same 


AGRICULTURE  151 

time  both  blossoms  and  fruit  (berries)  in  all  stages 
of  development. 

From  figures  in  the  Cauca  Valley,  it  costs  about 
8  c.  per  pound  to  place  coffee  in  New  York.  As 
with  everything  else  in  Colombia,  it  is  impossible 
to  give  exact  figures,  due  to  fluctuations  in  freights 
(mule)  and  exchange.  To-day  Colombian  coffee 
is  worth  in  New  York  from  17  c.  to  18^  c.  per 
pound.  In  the  Cauca  Valley,  where  plantations  will 
last  some  fifty  to  sixty  years,  720  trees  are  planted 
to  the  acre  ;  in  the  hills  more,  but  the  life  of  the 
trees  is  less. 

The  section  that  seems  to  have  the  best  future 
before  it  for  this  crop  is  the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa 
Marta,  due  to  its  good  geographical  position,  if 
sufficient  labour  can  be  secured,  as  the  rate  of 
freight  in  comparison  with  other  parts  of  Colombia 
is  low  and  steamship  service  good.  This  question 
of  freights  is  the  great  drawback  in  other  sections 
of  the  country,  as  all  transportation  has  to  be,  at 
least  in  part,  on  muleback,  which  is  expensive.  The 
Cauca  Valley  is  well  adapted  for  coffee,  and  if  the 
railroad,  which  will  reach  the  valley  next  year,  would 
only  carry  it  at  a  low  rate,  there  is  a  chance  of  its 
developing  into  a  large  industry.  I  say  chance 
because  the  difficulty  of  getting  the  sufficient 
quantity  of  labour,  especially  women  and  children, 
who  can  pick  more  and  at  less  cost  than  men,  is 
very  great,  and  it  is  useless  thinking  of  importing 
it,  as  there  is  practically  nothing  to  employ  it  in 
between  crop  times.  Where  labour  seems  to  be 
most  plentiful,  and  willing  to  work  in  the  planta- 
tions, is  in  Antioquia,  Santander,  Cundinamarca, 
Boyacd,  and  Caldas  ;  but  again  the  matter  of  freight 
is  an  obstacle,  as  from  all  these  regions  it  has  to  be 
moved  partly  on  muleback  for  long  distances  and 
partly   in   boats    down   the   Magdalena   River. 

Cocoa,  called  cacao. — This   is  but  little  cultivated 


152  COLOMBIA 

in  Colombia,  the  main  States  being  Tolima  and 
Cauca.  The  Colombians  do  not  care  much  for 
this  crop,  as  it  does  not  begin  to  produce  till  about 
six  to  eight  years  after  planting,  and  requires  ten 
to  twelve  years  to  reach  full  maturity.  Two  pounds 
per  tree  per  year  can  easily  be  reckoned  on  from  a 
plantation  well  looked  after.  Trees  are  planted  270 
to  the  acre,  and  12  c.  net  profit  per  tree  per  year 
may  easily  be  reckoned  on,  year  in  and  year  out, 
and  with  but  little  work  in  harvesting,  as  it  does 
not  require  much  labour  and  no  machinery  of  any 
kind.  It  is  rather  a  delicate  plant,  however,  and 
requires  more  care  and  attention  than  the  average 
Colombian    is    willing    to    bestow    on    it. 

The  Magdalena  and  Cauca  Valleys  are  especially 
adapted  to  its  cultivation,  particularly  the  latter,  as 
the  bean  produced  there  is  of  superior  quality  and 
fetches  a  higher  price  than  any  other.  I  have  seen 
plantations  over  sixty  years  old  still  bearing  good  crops. 

Wheat  and  the  other  cereals  will  grow  at  elevations 
from  7,000  feet  up.  The  Sierra  Nevada  is  ex- 
ceptionally well  situated  for  this  purpose,  and  has 
some  good  lands  well  watered  for  its  cultivation. 
In  the  interior  all  the  high  plateaux  from  this  eleva- 
tion up  are  suitable.  Where  the  industry  is  most 
developed  is  in  Cundinamarca,  Boyacd,  and  parts 
of  Santander,  its  value  being  reckoned  as  quite 
7^  million  dollars  a  year.  The  plateaux  near 
Popayan  and  Pasto  produce  some  wheat  to-day,  but 
little,  and  there  is  a  good  opening  for  this  industry 
in  these  latter  places,  as  labour  is  quite  plentiful  and 
of  a  better  class  than  negroes,  as  at  these  altitudes 
only  Indians  are  found,  the  negro  as  a  rule  being 
averse  to  going  anywhere  where  it  is  even  cool.  I 
have  not  been  able  to  get  any  figures  of  returns,  but 
should  say  it  must  pay  very  well  indeed,  as  the  price 
of  flour  is  high. 

Bananas. — This   industry  is   increasing   rapidly  on 


•J^ 


''.^  . 


5^    ^  ^      .:       ; 


*i4 


iri^i^ 


AGRICULTURE  163 

the  Atlantic  coast,  fostered  by  the  United  Fruit  Com- 
pany, the  port  for  shipment  being  Santa  Marta.  A 
German  company  is  developing  plantations  in  the 
Gulf  of  Uraba. 

There  are  some  30,000  acres  under  cultivation 
in  the  Santa  Marta  section,  of  which  8,000  belong 
to  the  United  Fruit.  It  is  said  that  there  are  still 
over  120,000  acres  of  land  in  the  same  section  avail- 
able for  its  cultivation. 

This  plant  needs  irrigation.  The  River  Sevilla 
can  irrigate  1,500  acres  more  than  are  already  under 
cultivation  ;  the  Tucurinca  and  Fundacion  Rivers 
25,000  acres  more,  and  the  Arracataca  7,500  acres 
more.  Thus  far  does  the  Santa  Marta  Railway  run, 
but  its  policy  is  to  continue  extending  the  road  as 
new  plantations  are  opened  up.  No  cultivation  has 
as  yet  been  undertaken  on  lands  that  can  be  irrigated 
by  the  River  Ariguani.  Most  of  the  undeveloped 
land  belongs  to  the  Government.  It  costs  about 
$50  per  acre  to  clear,  burn,  plant,  and  clean  till  the 
first  crop — one  year  after  planting — and  the  returns 
are  $33  nett  per  acre  per  year. 

Cotton  is  only  cultivated  on  a  small  scale,  in 
Antioquia  and  the  Atlantic  coast.  Trees  are  found 
wild  all  over  the  country  from  a  few  feet  above  sea- 
level  to  the  high  altitudes,  but  no  use  seems  to  be 
made  of  the  fibre,  even  by  the  poor  classes.  Where 
mills  have  been  erected  (Antioquia,  Atlantic  coast, 
Santander,  and  Boyacd)  they  have  fostered  the  culti- 
vation of  the  plant,  which  is  a  perennial  about  1 2  feet 
high,  but,  like  most  other  plantations,  little  care  is 
bestowed  on  it.  In  Antioquia  the  chief  milling  com- 
pany bought  cotton  in  1907  of  the  value  of  $6,920, 
in  1908  of  $31,000,  in  1909  of  $43,000,  in  1910 
of  $62,000,  in  191 1  of  $110,000,  so  it  looks  as 
if  there  were  a  future  for  it  wherever  there  may  be 
an  incentive  to  cultivate  it.  With  present  freights, 
cultivation   for   export    seems   inadvisable. 


154  COLOMBIA 

Potatoes,  yuccas,  arracachas  are  cultivated  all  over 
the  country  at  not  less  than  5,000  to  6,000  feet,  and 
form  staples  of  food  for  the  people  living  there  and 
supply  the  population  in  the  valleys.  On  the  coast 
the   people   eat   imported   potatoes   from   the   States. 

Panama  Hats. — This  industry  has  been  growing 
quite  considerably  in  the  past  few  years,  and  is 
especially  developed  in  Antioquia,  Tolima,  and 
Narino.  The  altitude  most  favourable  for  the 
growth  and  good  quality  of  the  straw  of  the  palm 
seems  to  be  from  5,000  feet  up. 

In  191  I  there  were  exported  93,784  kilos,  valued 
at  $1,088,821. 

Fibre. — This  is  indeed  but  a  very  small  industry, 
yet  the  Colombians  supply  themselves  with  the  neces- 
sary fibre  for  the  manufacture  of  ropes  and  coarse 
string.  A  few  sacks  are  made  in  Cundinamarca  and 
Narino.  All  the  rest  necessary  for  exporting  coffee, 
cacao,  and  sugar  has  to  be  imported.  The  cactus 
from  which  it  is  derived,  called  locally  "  cabulla,"  and 
somewhat  similar  to  the  Yucatan  hennequen,  grows 
pretty  well  everywhere  and  at  all  altitudes.  Some 
farmers  plant  it  out  as  fences,  for  which  purpose  it 
serves  well. 

Resume. — As  will  be  seen  from  the  above,  there 
is  but  little  agricultural  development  taking  the 
country  as  a  whole.  This  is  due  more  than  anything 
else  to  lack  of  roads,  as  a  good  many  products  raised 
in  the  interior  of  the  country  cannot  compete  for 
home  consumption  with  imported  goods,  in  spite  of 
heavy  duties.  Then,  again,  such  parts  of  the  country 
as  are  inhabited  are  fairly  densely  populated,  but  too 
far  away  from  each  other  to  develop  intercourse  in 
business  on  a  large  scale. 

For  practical  purposes  it  can  be  said  that  the  Mag- 
dalena  watershed — with  the  exception  of  a  few  isolated 
settlements  in  the  llanos  of  Ayapel  and  Corozal — the 
llanos  of  Casanare,  San  Martin,  and  Patia,  the  Choc6, 


AGRICULTURE  155 

Caqueta,  and  Putumayo  selvas  are  unpopulated. 
These  constitute  quite  two -thirds  of  the  entire  area 
of  the  country.  The  Cordillera  slopes,  again,  are 
but  very  sparsely  populated,  great  sections  of  the 
.Western  and  Central  entirely  devoid  of  any  in- 
habitants. The  greatest  centres  of  population  are 
in  Boyaca,  Cundinamarca,  Antioquia,  Caldas,  parts 
of  Santander,  parts  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  Cauca 
Valley,  and  parts  of  Nariilo  around  Pasto,  probably 
in  the  order  named. 

The  chief  products  of  each  State  are  as  follows  : 

Boyaca. — Potatoes,  wheat,  corn,  beans,  vegetables, 
cattle,  and  horses.  Sugar  and  coffee  but  little.  The 
populated  part  of  this  State  is  the  most  dense  in 
the  whole  country,  and  is  probably  the  poorest. 
Labour  mostly  Indian. 

Cundinamarca. — Potatoes,  wheat,  very  good  cattle, 
horses,  corn,  sugar,  coffee.  Probably  the  most 
advanced  of  all  the  States.      Labour  mostly  Indian. 

Antioquia. — Coffee,  hats,  cotton,  and  sugar,  cattle - 
fattening.  A  very  hard-working  and  clever  people, 
nearly  all  white. 

Tolima. — Cacao,  sugar,  coffee,  rice,  hats,  and 
cattle,  although  this  latter  is  not  very  good. 

Atlantic  Coast. — Bananas,  corn,  sugar,  cacao, 
coffee  around  Santa  Marta  ;  cotton  around  Barran- 
quilla,  and  sugar  around  Cartagena. 

Nariho. — Hats,  wheat,  aniseed,  potatoes,  vege- 
tables, cattle.  This  latter  poor.  Population  nearly 
all  Indian. 

Caldas. — Coffee,  cattle,  corn,  beans,  potatoes. 
Nearly  all  white. 

Cauca  Valley. — Sugar,  coffee,  cacao,  cattle,  and 
horses.     Labour  nearly  all  black. 

Cauca. — Coft'ee,  cattle,  wheat,  corn.  Labour 
mostly  Indian. 

Santander. — Coffee,  sugar,  corn,  cotton,  cattle. 
Good   people,   white,    and   hard   workers. 


156  COLOMBIA 

Pacific  Coast. — Practically  all  virgin  forest.  Below 
the  rain -belt  near  Tumaco  there  are  a  few  negro 
settlements  living  on  cattle,  corn,  and  a  little  sugar. 

Given  means  of  transportation,  the  industries,  in 
my  opinion,  that  will  redeem  Colombia  are  cattle, 
sugar,   coffee,  and  bananas. 

The  sections  most  favourably  situated  are  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  and  once  the  railroad  is  built  into 
the  valley  and  the  Canal  open,  the  Cauca  Valley.  In 
the  Sierra  Nevada  region  proper,  that  is,  the  high 
lands,  I  do  not  think  there  are  many  suitable  flats, 
but  only  small  valleys  and  hill-sides. 

For  cattle  undoubtedly  the  Bolivar  and  eastern 
llanos  and  the  valley  of  the  Cauca  will  be  the  first 
to  be  developed  on  a  large  scale  for  export,  especi- 
ally the  first,  as  being  nearer  the  United  States 
markets.  Tolima  plains  and  Patia  Valley  being  well 
in  the  interior,  there  is  not  much  hope  of  getting 
stock  out  of  them  at  a  reasonable  price.  For  sugar 
we  can  look  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  on  account  of  its 
situation,  as  freight  is  there  a  minor  matter.  In  the 
Cauca  Valley,  when  the  railroad  is  finished  and  the 
Canal  open,  there  is  a  very  big  future  for  this  in- 
dustry on  account  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  good 
climate,  and  a  fair  population.  The  development 
of  coffee  can  be  expected  all  over  the  country  where 
there  is  sufficient  population,  but  especially  in  the 
Sierra  Nevada  region,  due  to  its  good  position,  and 
bananas  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

There  is  plenty  of  room  for  development  and  plenty 
of  opportunities  if  the  settler  is  careful  in  studying 
conditions,  transportation,  and  population. 

Tracts  of  land  suitable  for  clearing  can  be  obtained 
either  from  the  Government  or  from  private  owners 
at  a  reasonable  cost.  Titles  are  secure,  and  in 
general  date  back  a  long  period  of  time  ;  the  chief 
difficulty  occasionally  met  with  is  in  the  case  of 
indivisos,    where    there   are    a    number    of  owners    in 


AGRICULTURE  157 

common,  due  to  estates  being  handed  down  for 
generations  without  any  partition  proceedings  being 
had  and  undivided  interests  being  conveyed  or  trans- 
mitted. The  disentanglement  of  an  indiviso  of  long 
standing  is  a  tedious  and  costly  proceeding,  dragging 
on  for  years.  Owing,  also,  to  the  vagueness  of  early 
grants,  boundary  disputes  are  another  fruitful  source 
of  litigation,  and  disputes  over  water  rights  are  occa- 
sionally troublesome.  But,  of  course,  in  none  of 
these  respects  is  Colombia  unique  :  agricultural  coun- 
tries in  all  parts  of  the  tropics  are  in  the  same 
condition.  The  vast  majority  of  titles  in  Colombia, 
however,  are  perfectly  good,  and  the  foreigner,  acting 
under  proper  legal  advice,  can  purchase  with  safety. 
In  buying  undeveloped  land,  he  will  occasionally  run 
up  against  an  exaggerated  idea  of  values.  The  use 
of  paper  money  seems  to  have  had  a  decided  influ- 
ence, by  accustoming  people  to  think  in  millions,  in 
inflating  the  prices  at  which  privately  owned  forest 
lands  are  held.  The  fact  of  the  matter  is,  that  the 
Colombian  in  general  has  no  real  idea  of  the  practical 
value  of  undeveloped  lands,  and  if  asked  to  name  his 
price  will  generally  ask  an  absurd  figure.  Then  as 
soon  as  he  gets  the  idea  that  some  one  really  wants 
an  estate,  he  decides  it  must  be  worth  keeping  for 
himself,  forgetting  that  he  and  his  ancestors  have 
never  obtained  any  profit  out  of  it  themselves.  But 
in  spite  of  such  occasional  obstacles,  there  is  no  real 
difficulty  in  picking  up  at  fair  valuations,  often  even 
at  bargain  prices,  good  lands  suitable  for  agri- 
cultural development.  The  future  permanent  wealth 
of  Colombia  will  be  in  its  agriculture. 


CHAPTER    XI  I 

MINES   AND    FORESTS 

It  was  lust  for  gold  that  spurred  on  the  Spanish 
conquerors  ;  in  the  colonial  epoch,  gold  mining  was 
the  great  source  of  wealth  ;  in  modern  times,  the 
mineral  industry  has  been  the  principal  occupation 
of  one  great  section  of  Colombia,  and  to-day  it  is 
the  country's  unbounded  and  undoubted  mineral 
wealth,  even  more  than  its  agricultural,  commercial, 
or  industrial  possibilities,  that  is  attracting  the  atten- 
tion  of   foreign   investors    and    fortune-seekers. 

The  past  history  of  the  land  and  the  unanimous 
reports  of  all  observers  well  justify  this  present-day 
interest.  The  rich  deposits  are  there  —  barely 
scratched  even  by  the  past  extraction  of  hundreds 
of  millions'  worth.  It  needs  but  the  overcoming  of 
obstacles,  obstacles  that  in  the  past  often  have  been 
insuperable  and  still  at  times  render  the  cost  of 
operation  incommensurate  with  the  returns,  to  make 
of  Colombia  one  of  the  great  mining  countries  of 
the  world.  As  it  is,  her  role  has  been  and  is  no 
insignificant  one. 

The  Spanish  Conquistadores  seized  enormous  quan- 

'  The  earlier  statistics  and  historical  facts  in  this  chapter  have 
been  obtained  chiefly  from  Kegel,  Jalhay,  the  volume  on  the 
Republic  of  Colombia,  published  by  the  New  York  Consulate  in 
1896  and  the  annual  volumes  of  the  Mineral  Industry.  Later  data 
have  been  obtained  from  official  publications,  technical  periodicals, 
and  from  information  kindly  furnished  by  a  number  of  mining 
companies  and  engineers. 

158 


MINES   AND   FORESTS  159 

titles  of  gold  that  had  been  amassed  by  the  Indians, 
but  more  important  in  the  eyes  of  their  victims  had 
been  salt.  The  rock-salt  of  Zipaquira  and  Nemocon 
(Cundinamarca)  which  the  Chibchas  mined,  was  one 
of  the  main  bases  of  their  wealth  and  power.  The 
Spaniards  continued  working  the  same  deposits,  but 
in  the  most  primitive  manner,  until  better  methods 
were  introduced  pursuant  to  Humboldt's  suggestions. 
Being  under  Government  operation  —  salt  is  a 
monopoly — it  is  not  surprising  that  the  methods  have 
not  since  kept  up  with  the  times,  although  improve- 
ments are  from  time  to  time  made  ;  recently,  for 
instance,  electric  lighting  has  been  installed  in  the 
galleries  of  the  Zipaquira  mine.  Besides  Nemocon 
and  Zipaquira,  salt  is  mined  or  evaporated  from  salt 
springs  in  small  quantities,  principally  at  Tausa, 
Sesquile,  Chita,  and  Muneque,  all  in  the  Eastern 
Cordillera  ;  it  is  also  found  in  a  few  places  in  the 
Western  and  Central  Cordilleras,  but  its  production 
there  is  insignificant,  although  left  to  individual 
initiative.  The  really  rich  sources  are  monopolized 
by  the  Government,  and  the  profits  derived  there- 
from are  an  important  part  of  the  national  revenues. 
The  production  of  the  principal  salt  mines  for 
1905    was   as  follows  : 

irii„«-,™,.  Value 

Kilograms.  DoUars. 

Zipaquira  ...         ...         ...     7,866,000  269,423 

Nemocon 4,211,000  90)S95 

Sesquile i,535.ooo  31.919 

In  1907  the  total  gross  product  of  the  marine  and 
terrestrial  salines  reached  $1,153,019,  of  which  the 
marine  (nearly  all  on  the  Atlantic  coast)  produced 
$584,230.83,  and  the  terrestrial  (about  20,000  tons) 
was  :  Zipaquira,  $524,786  ;  Chameza  and  Recetor, 
$4,414.63  ;  Chita  and  Muneque,  $35,504  ;  Cumaral 
and  Upin,  $4,101.  In  1908  the  Zipaquira  mine 
alone  produced  gross   $555,331    and   net   $375,554. 


160  COLOMBIA 

The  President's  message  to  Congress  (1912)  reports 
the  net  proceeds  of  the  marine  salt  works  in  191  i 
at  $1 16,889,  and  of  Zipaquira  in  191  o,  $3  16,755,  and 
in  191 1,  gross  $460,896,  net  $373,287  ;  it  does  not 
give  data  as  to  other  salines.  The  Zipaquira  Mine 
is  reported  by  one  engineer  to  contain  500  million 
cubic  metres  of  salt,  of  a  weight  of  more  than  a 
billion  kilograms.  The  amount  of  salt  sold  at  Zipa- 
quira from  1778  to  1907  inclusive,  according  to 
official  data,  was  739,220  tons,  of  a  value  of 
$24,187,017.  The  mines  of  Cumaral  and  Upin, 
practically  untouched  for  lack  of  roads  to  the  points 
of  consumption,  are  also  reported  to  be  wonderfully 
rich,  sufficient  to  supply  the  whole  Republic  for 
generations  and  generations. 

Another  Government  monopoly  is  that  of  the 
famous  mines  of  Muzo,  which  furnish  the  finest 
emeralds  in  the  world.  In  1909  the  Government 
entered  into  a  partnership  contract  with  an  English 
company.  The  Colombian  Emerald  Mining  Com- 
pany, Ltd.,  controlled  by  South  African  diamond 
interests,  for  the  exploitation  of  these  wonderful 
deposits,  but  suit  has  been  brought  to  rescind  the 
agreement  on  grounds  which  do  little  credit  to  either 
the  company  or  the  representatives  of  the  former  ad- 
ministration who  made  the  contract.  A  settlement  is 
likely,  and  with  improved  methods  a  considerable 
expansion  in  production  may  be  looked  forward  to. 
A  very  interesting  account  of  these  mines  was  given 
by  Mr.  Charles  Olden  to  the  Institution  of  Mining, 
December  21,  191 1,'  from  which  we  take  the  liberty, 
with  the  kind  permission  of  the  Institution,  of 
quoting  : 

"With  the  exception  of  those  occurring  in  Colombia,  there  are 
no  known  deposits  of  emeralds  in  South  America,  notwithstanding 
statements  to  the  contrary. 


'  Transactions,  vol.  xxi.,  pp.  193-209. 


MINES   AND   FORESTS  161 

"In  Colombia  there  are  several  deposits.  The  chief  is  that  now 
known  as  the  Muzo  and  Cosquez  Mines.  There  are  also  those 
known  as  the  Somondoco  mines  and  other  of  less  importance. 
Most  if  not  all  of  the  emeralds  are  found  in  the  Department  of 
Boyaca.  The  Muzo  and  Cosquez  mines  are  situated  about  go  miles 
NNW.  of  Bogota.  The  Somondoco  mines  are  approximately 
30  to  35  miles  east  of  Bogota.  Between  these  two  deposits  emeralds 
have  been  met,  both  as  single  gems  and  as  deposits,  but  they  have 
not  as  yet  proved  to  be  of  first  class  quality.  .  .  . 

"  Geographical. — Situated  on  a  spur  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera  of 
the  Andes,  the  Muzo  emerald  deposits  lie  in  a  natural  valley  some- 
what resembling  a  funnel  in  shape.  They  lie  from  20  to  150 
metres  above  the  valley,  and  the  establishment  stands  about 
half  way  between  these  extremes,  the  slopes  on  both  sides  being 
steep,  almost  to  perpendicular  in  places.  Mining  operations  are 
carried  on  at  various  points  simultaneously  at  altitudes  ranging 
from  3,000  to  4,000  feet  above  sea-level.  The  approaches  to  the 
mines  from  the  surrounding  country  are  difficult,  and  transport  is 
rendered  tedious  by  reason  of  the  bad  state  in  which  the  roads  are 
allowed  to  remain  .  .  .  mules  are  employed  for  transportation.  The 
time  required  to  reach  rail-head  varies  from  two  and  a  half  to  three 
days.  .  ,  . 

"  Labour. — All  the  native  workers  are  pure  Indians,  indigenous 
to  the  locality.  The  men  are  not  recruited  from  the  immediate 
neighbourhood,  but  are  drawn  from  districts  at  least  a  day's  journey 
away  from  the  mines.  .  .  .  The  Indians  are  engaged  for  terms  of  not 
less  than  three  months  ;  during  this  time  [for  obvious  reasons] 
they  are  not  permitted  to  leave  the  establishment,  except  by  special 
permission  from  the  management.  As  there  is  but  one  way  into 
the  mines,  it  is  not  difficult  to  keep  track  of  the  men.  Excellent 
arrangements  exist  as  to  housing,  feeding,  medical  attendance, 
baths,  wash-houses  and  other  benefits  for  the  comfort  and  well- 
being  of  the  men.  All  are  fed  free,  and  there  is  no  limit  placed 
upon  the  rations  of  fresh  meat,  vegetables,  etc.,  supplied.  For  the 
accommodation  of  the  small  boys  who  have  elected  to  accompany 
their  elders  to  the  mines,  school  is  provided. 

"  Geology. — The  Muzo  emeralds  occur  in  calcite  veins  traversing 
black  carboniferous  '  limestone,  in  which  are  found  ammonites  and 
other  fossil  remains,  which  fix  the  age  of  the  deposit  as  Lower 
Cretaceous.  .  .  .  The  veins  vary  in  width  from  a  mere  streak  less  than 
I  inch  wide  up  to  18  or  24  inches,  but  these  wider  veins  are  not  held 
in  favour,  as  the  gems  are  more  frequently  found  in  the  small  veins. 

"  The  emerald  occurs  at  Muzo  only  in  its  calcite  or  its  limestone 
matrix."  

*  Corrected  to  "carbonaceous,"  p.  208. 
12 


162  COLOMBIA 

The  writer,  after  describing  the  working  methods, 
goes  on  to  say  : 

"A  bank  may  prove  absolutely  valueless  after  months  of  work 
upon  it.  Despite  the  greatest  care  in  the  selection  of  the  locality 
for  starting  the  work,  no  one  can  estimate  the  probable  value  of  any 
particular  section  of  a  deposit.  In  this  respect  emerald  mining 
differs  from  most  of  the  other  branches  of  the  industry.  The  lack 
of  conformity  exhibited  by  the  calcite  veins  as  to  dip,  strike,  or 
continuity  in  anyone  direction,  deprives  the  engineer  of  all  ordinary 
data  upon  which  he  could  depend  in  forming  a  judgment,  and  the 
usual  element  of  chance  is  much  increased  when  dealing  with  the 
elusive  emerald.  There  is  little  risk,  however,  in  cutting  down  a  bank 
immediately  adjacent  to  a  productive  mine,  as  the  veins  can  be 
followed  into  the  new  ground  with  reasonable  prospects  of  success. 
Wherever  the  veins  show  they  are  followed,  even  if  this  entails 
cutting  down  a  bank  loo  feet  high.  Once  a  productive  formation 
is  found  it  is  never  left  until  it  is  worked  out,  and  this  may  prove  to 
be  the  work  of  years,  as  frequently  happens  at  Muzo. 

"  The  tools  used  are  steel  bars  about  5  feet  long  and  weighing 
30  lb.  and  shovels.  The  bars  are  forged  to  a  point  at  one  end  and 
made  wedge-shaped  at  the  other.  As  the  bank  deepens  and 
approaches  the  calcite  veins,  great  care  is  exercised  to  prevent 
undue  force  being  used,  owing  to  the  risk  of  breaking  the  emeralds 
which  may  be  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  In  this  careful  work  the 
Indians  excel,  and  they  can  strike  repeatedly  the  same  spot  in  the 
formation  with  the  pointed  end  of  the  bar  without  deviating  one 
hair's  breadth,  using  just  sufficient  force  to  break  the  limestone 
without  smashing  the  calcite  or  the  gems  it  may  contain.  An 
unskilled  miner,  native  or  white,  could  do  immense  damage  when 
using  the  bar  in  the  neighbourhood  of  an  emerald-bearing  vein. 

"  A  bank  is  never  left,  day  or  night,  so  long  as  it  is  productive. 
Relays  of  miners  are  drafted  to  it  to  take  the  place  of  those  who 
retire  to  meals,  which  are  served  only  in  the  dining-rooms  and 
never  at  the  banks.  Other  relays  of  miners  are  drafted  as  necessity 
demands.  When  a  bank  becomes  more  than  ordinarily  productive, 
as  when  a  rich  pocket  is  discovered,  the  number  of  overseers  is 
augmented  and  extra  vigilance  is  exercised  to  prevent  theft  or 
carelessness  in  handling  the  matrix,  and  to  see  that  no  formation 
likely  to  carry  gems  is  thrown  over  the  dump.  In  this  way  work 
continues  till  dusk,  when  the  banks  are  put  in  charge  of  military 
police  or  soldiers,  of  whom  a  large  force  is  always  stationed  on  the 
mines  and  in  the  city  of  Muzo. 

"  There  is  no  evidence  whatever  that  the  deposits  are  likely  to 
become  exhausted  for  the  next  few  hundred  years." 


MINES   AND   FORESTS  163 

The  coal  deposits  that  are  found  in  many  parts  of 
the  Andes  have  been  worked  but  Uttle  and  only  for 
purely  local  consumption.  In  the  Eastern  Cordillera 
they  are  met  with  here  and  there — on  the  edge  of  the 
llanos  at  Villavicencio,  in  the  Guaduas  Valley,  on  the 
slope  of  the  Cerro  de  la  Suma  Paz,  in  the  Carare 
region,  at  Pacho,  La  Pradera,  Samacd,  etc.,  and 
especially  on  the  edge  of  the  Saban^  of  Bogota. 
Immediately  back  of  Bogota,  coal  is  mined,  but  the 
most  important  works  are  those  of  Nemoc6n  and 
Zipaquira.  At  the  latter  place  there  are  five  seams 
a  yard  thick.  None  of  the  various  discoveries  in  the 
Eastern  Cordillera  give  promise,  however,  of  any 
industrial  development  of  great  importance.  In  the 
Central  range,  coal  is  mined  in  small  quantities  for 
use  in  neighbouring  smelteries,  iron-foundries,  etc. 
The  various  outcroppings  seem  to  form  part  of  one 
general  streak,  running  from  Andes  above  the  Cauca 
Valley  towards  Fredonia  and  Amaga  on  one  side  and 
towards  Sabaletas,  Titiribi,  and  Eliconia  on  the 
other.  Further  north  numerous  coal  deposits  have 
been  found  at  Caceres,  and  between  Caceres  and 
Zaragoza,  but  no  development  work  has  been  under- 
taken. 

For  future  export  and  industrial  possibilities  we 
should  look  rather  to  the  beds  of  the  Western  Cor- 
dillera and  those  near  the  Atlantic  coast  :  these 
deposits,  if  found  upon  thorough  exploration  equal 
to  anticipations,  will  become  a  source  of  great  wealth. 
The  beds  near  Call,  on  the  line  of  the  Cauca  Railway, 
are  believed  to  be  very  extensive  and  to  run  entirely 
through  the  Cordillera  to  the  Pacific  slope.  Their 
proximity  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  to  the  Canal 
would  make  them  an  important  factor,  although  their 
commercial  value  might  be  diminished  to  a  certain 
extent  if  the  United  States  Government,  as  has  been 
reported  to  be  its  intention,  sell  West  Virginia  coal, 
superior  for  steamers,  at  Panama  at  practically  cost. 


104  COLOMBIA 

Near  the  Atlantic  two  coal  areas  are  known  ;  one  to 
the  east,  where  a  wide  vein  of  cannel  coal  with  sur- 
face outcroppings  was  discovered  in  1865  by  John 
May,  an  English  engineer,  on  the  south-eastern  slope 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta,  near  the  town 
of  Serrejon,  and  reported  to  extend  with  other  parallel 
veins  north-easterly  into  the  Goajira  peninsula  ;  the 
other,  near  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  contains  a  deposit 
of  anthracite,  extending  some  50  miles  north  and 
south,  of  a  thickness  of  five  metres,  and  also  lignite 
nearby  at  a  place  called  Arboletes.  Farther  inland, 
in  the  Sierra  de  Abibe,  the  mountainous  region  be- 
tween the  rivers  Leon  and  Sinu,  not  only  have  various 
coal  outcroppings  been  reported  by  prospectors,  but 
also  plentiful  indications  of  other  mineral  deposits, 
iron,  copper,  lead,  petroleum,  gold,  and  silver.  "Here, 
too,  are  lands  that  have  no  superior  in  the  way  of 
fertility  anywhere  in  the  world.  These  lands  are 
accessible  to  good  harbourage.  Here  is  a  land  prac- 
tically uninhabited  that  has  ideal  surroundings  and 
only  awaits  the  man  of  brain  and  energy  to  convert 
it  into  a  profitable  domain."  ' 

Iron  is  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  many  of 
the  coal  mines  we  have  mentioned,  but  has  been 
worked  at  only  a  few  for  use  in  local  foundries — 
at  Pacho,  now  abandoned,  at  La  Pradera,  where 
there  was  an  extensive  investment  a  score  of  years 
ago,  but  little  progress  made,  and  at  two  or  three 
places  in  Antioquia,  where,  on  a  small  scale,  rails, 
mills,  and  parts  for  mining  machinery  are  being 
turned  out.  Copper,  tin,  quicksilver,  lead,  and  many 
other  minerals  and  precious  stones  have  been  dis- 
covered at  a  great  many  points,  usually  inaccessible, 
throughout  Colombia,  but  few  attempts  have  been 
made  to  work  any  of  them  on  account  of  transporta- 
tion costs.  Valuable  asphalt  deposits  have  been 
worked  on  a  small  scale  in  the  upper  Magdalena 
'  Mining  Journal,  July  27,  1912. 


MINES   AND    FORESTS  165 

Valley,  but  freights  are  well-nigh  prohibitive. 
Petroleum  is  found  between  Cartagena  and  Barran- 
quilla,  and  elsewhere,  but  only  one  concern,  a 
Canadian  company,  has  drilled  wells. 

It  is  in  the  domain  of  the  precious  metals  that 
Colombia  holds  a  proud  place  ;  her  gold,  silver,  and 
platinum  resources  are  of  commanding  interest. 

It  was  in  Colombia,  in  the  placers  of  the  Choco, 
that  platinum  was  discovered  by  the  Spanish 
scientist,  Antonio  de  Ulloa,  in  1737.  The  recent 
high  price  of  the  metal  and  the  rapid  depletion  of 
the  Russian  deposits  have  turned  attention  very 
seriously  to  Colombia  as  the  chief  source  of  supply 
of  the  future.  For  a  number  of  years  it  has  ranked 
second  in  the  world,  but  its  percentage  of  the  total 
was  very  small.  There  are  two  districts  in  Colombia 
where  this  rare  but  indispensable  metal  is  washed. 
In  one,  the  Barbacoas  district,  extending  from  the 
frontier  of  Ecuador  to  the  Micay  River,  gold 
(platinum  is  never  found  alone)  is  the  metal  of 
paramount  importance,  and  the  platinum  is  a 
negligible  by-product.  In  the  other  region,  the 
Choco,  it  often  outvalues  the  gold  ;  here  it  is  found 
in  the  rivers  of  the  San  Juan  and  Atrato  water- 
sheds ;  the  main  placers  are  those  of  the  Rivers 
Condoto  and  Platina,  and  it  is  also  obtained  from 
the  Iro,  Tamana,  Bebara,  Negua,  Andagueda, 
Certegui,  and  Agua  Clara,  etc.  The  production 
heretofore  has  been  desultory,  practically  all  the 
metal  being  obtained  by  the  lazy  negro  labourers, 
who  mine  for  their  own  account,  washing  by  hand 
in  bateas,  working  only  when  forced  to  do  so 
by  lack  of  food,  and  quitting  as  soon  as  they  have 
accumulated  a  little  of  the  metal,  which  they  trade 
for  necessaries.  But  foreign  capital  is  now  going 
in.  The  most  notable  undertaking  is  that  of  the 
Anglo -Colombian  Development  Company,  formed  by 
the    Consolidated    Goldfields    interests,     which     has 


166  COLOMBIA 

already  spent  and  is  continuing  to  invest  a  very 
large  amount  of  money  in  exploration  work  and 
the  purchase  of  properties  preparatory  to  develop- 
ment on  an  extensive  scale,  not  only  for  gold  and 
platinum  in  this  section,  but  in  other  sections  within 
reach  of  the  Pacific  coast.  If  this  company  succeeds, 
as  with  the  resources  at  its  command  it  unquestion- 
ably will,  in  meeting  the  labour  problem,  the  platinum 
production  of  Colombia  can  be  expected  to  increase 
enormously.  In  1906  the  exportation  was  6,813 
ounces,  of  a  declared  value  of  $122, 119  ;  in  1907 
the  production  was  about  5,000  ounces  of  crude 
metal  (the  Russian  production  is  estimated  at 
300,000  ounces),  in  1908  it  was  somewhat  less,  due 
to  lower  prices  and  the  attempt  of  the  Government 
to  monopolize  the  industry.  In  191  o,  approximately, 
1 3,000  ounces  of  crude  platinum  were  recovered 
(valued  at  $260,632),  the  major  portion  of  which 
was  shipped  to  Europe  :  the  exports  to  the  United 
States  amounted  to  3,270  ounces  (valued  at 
$76,030),  considerably  larger  than  in  1909.  191 1 
saw  a  still  more  notable  increase  :  the  exports  were 
reported  as  valued  at  $345,896. 

Platinum  is  interesting  because  of  its  rare  occur- 
rence in  the  world,  but  it  is  gold  and  silver  that  give 
Colombia  its  importance  as  a  mineral  land.  The 
average  reader  will  probably  be  surprised  at 
learning  the  enormous  quantity  of  these  metals  that 
Colombia  has  produced  in  the  course  of  its  history. 
In  fact,  prior  to  the  discovery  of  the  goldfields  of 
California  and  Australia,  it  was  Colombia  that  had 
furnished  the  chief  single  source  of  gold  supply  to 
Europe.  The  most  exhaustive  student  of  the  sub- 
ject. Dr.  Vicente  Restrepo,i  estimates  the  total  pro- 

'  Estndio  sobre  las  minas  de  oro  y  plata  de  Colombia  (2nd  ed., 
Bogota,  1888),  Eng.  trans,  of  ist  ed.,  by  C.  W.  Fisher,  Gold  and 
Silver  Mines  of  Colombia  (N.Y.,  1886),  Fr.  trans,  by  Henry  Jalhay 
(Brussels,  1891). 


LA   CASCADA   QUARTZ    MINE,    MAMZALES. 


NATIVE   PLACER   MINERS,    SAX   NICOLAS. 


MINES   AND   FORESTS 


167 


duction  of  gold  from  the  Conquest  (1537)  to  1882 
at  876,774  kilograms,  worth  $582,704,000,  and  of 
silver  during  the  same  time  as  $47,000,000.  These 
figures  are  far  more  conservative  than  those  given 
by  Dr.  Adolf  Soetbeer,  who  estimated  the  produc- 
tion from  1537  to  1875,  of  gold  at  1,231,000  kilos, 
worth  $8 1 8,454,900,  and  of  silver  at  6  to  i  o  per  cent, 
of  the  gold,  or  from  $49,227,000  to  $82,000,000. 
From  1876  to  1892,  both  inclusive,  the  figures  are 
given  I  as  :  gold,  79.437  kilos,  value  $52,792,973  ; 
silver,  from  1880  to  1891,  about  234,000  kilos, 
value,    1880   to    1892,   both   inclusive,   $11,676,000. 


Year. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Kilog. 

Oz.  Fine. 

Value. 

Kilog. 

Oz.  Fine. 

Value. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

1893 

4.353 

— 

2,892,800 

52,511 

1,688,230 

1,320,126 

1894 

4,339 

139,516 

2,892,800 

52,511 

1,688,230 

1,063,610 

i«95 

4,890 

154,000 

3,183,000 

53,500 

1,720,025 

1,122,965 

1896 

5,416 

174,165 

3,600,000 

51,200 

1,646,080 

1,104,384 

1897 

5,868 

188,679 

3,900,000 

51,200 

1,646,080 

985,191 

1898 

5,567 

179,003 

3,700,000 

51,200 

1,646,080 

971,187 

1899 

3,462 

111,272 

2,300,000 

109,531 

3,521,563 

2,098,147 

19003 

3,462 

111,272 

2,300,000 

87,089 

2,800,000 

1,719,480 

1901 

3,114 

100,145 

2,070,000 

78,380 

2,520,000 

1,485,540 

1902 

3,561-3 

120,831 

2,500,000 

— 

— 

— 

1903 

4,098*9 

131-785 

2,724,000 

— 

— 

— 

1904 

2,970-8 

95,520 

1,974,000 

— 

— 

— 

19053 

2, 970' 8 

95,520 

1,974,000 

31,103-5 

1,000,000 

603,500 

1906 

3,296 

105,966 

2,190,522 

30,482 

980,000 

654,552 

1907 

4,898 

157,471 

3,255,311 

— 

— 

— 

1908 

4,530 

145,649 

3,010,565 

— 

— 

— 

1909 

4,660 

150,000 

3,100,500 

— 

— 

176,127= 

1910 

— 

279,342' 

3,369,941' 

— 

— 

407,690^ 

1911 

10,574' 

~ 

3,751.632= 

210,233= 

'  The  Republic  of  Colombia,  issued  by  the  Consulate,  N.Y.,  1896. 
For  still  other  figures,  from  official  publications,  see  Kegel,  Jalhay, 
but  who  in  their  summations  appear  to  have  overlooked  the  fact 
that  some  of  the  official  figures  represent  the  values  in  Colombian 
money  and  not  in  U.S.  gold,  elsewhere  taken  as  the  standard. 

=  Export  statistics,  crude  metal. 

3  Estimated  same  as  in  preceding  year. — The  Mineral  Industry. 


168  COLOMBIA 

Since  1892  I  have  found  the  foregoing  statistics,' 
upon  which,  however,  absolute  reHance  cannot  be 
placed  ;  to  the  critical  student  they  seem  decidedly 
too  low,  due  probably  to  the  very  large  quantity 
of  gold-dust  privately  shipped,  of  which  no  official 
record  can  be  taken. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  principal  mining 
districts  of  Colombia  are  still  those  that  were  dis- 
covered and  worked  by  the  Spaniards,  in  the 
historical  political  divisions  of  Antioquia,  Cauca, 
Santander,  and  Tolima.  A  mention  of  the  countless 
places  where  mines  are  worked  or  known  would 
read  almost  like  a  gazetteer  of  those  sections  of 
Colombia  :  we  can  only  mention  a  few  of  the  more 
important  regions,  especially  those  that  have  most 
interested  foreign  capital. 

Antioquia  has  always  been  the  chief  mining  section, 
and  still  maintains  its  lead  both  for  quartz  deposits 
and  placers.  Many  of  its  mines  have  been  con- 
tinuously worked  from  the  Spanish  and  even  the 
Indian  days  without  diminution.  A  French  engineer 
says  2  :  "  The  massif  of  Antioquia  alone  is  perhaps  the 
richest  auriferous  deposit  in  the  world,  and  only  awaits 
hands  and  capital  to  show  its  immense  value.  .  .  . 
One  can  say  of  this  region,  extremely  mountainous 
and  full  of  ravines,  cut  in  all  directions  by  fractures 
or  lodes,  which  are  nearly  all  goldbearing,  that  it 
constitutes  an  immense  massif  of  gold.  Barely  the 
thousandth  part  of  the  deposits  has  been  worked. 
There  is  gold  everywhere,  in  variable  proportions,  it 
is  true,  but  nearly  always  in  workable  and  paying 
quantity." 

Of   the   alluvial   mines,   the   most   actively   worked 

'  See  p.  167. 

"  Demangeon  :  L' Industrie  Aurifirc  cnColombie{Pan^,  igoG,  1907); 
the  title  is  somewhat  misleading,  as  the  book  is  confined  to  Antio- 
quia ;  it  makes  a  very  thorough  study  of  the  gold  industry  of  that 
region.  See  also  Granger  and  Treville  :  Mitting Districts  of  Colombia 
(Tr.  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Eng.,  vol.  28  (1898)). 


MINES   AND   FORESTS  169 

to-day  are  those  of  the  Cauca,  Force,  and  Ncchi 
Rivers  and  the  numerous  mountain  streams, 
quebradas,  that  flow  into  them.  The  Force  flows 
into  the  Nechi  near  Zaragoza,  the  chief  town  of  the 
region,  whence  there  is  steam  navigation  via  the 
Nechi,  the  Cauca,  and  the  Magdalena  to  Barran- 
quilla.  The  vast  amount  that  has  been  washed 
from  the  auriferous  sands  of  this  region  has  not  in  the 
least  impaired  the  present  yield  :  the  production  by 
the  natives,  who  prefer  to  work  on  their  own  account, 
even  if  only  on  a  small  scale,  is  very  large  ;  and  a 
number  of  foreigners,  especially  Americans  and 
French,  are  successfully  working  with  hydraulic 
monitors  on  a  large  scale,  and  undertaking  extensive 
ditching  and  tunnelling.  The  most  interesting 
developments  now  going  on  are  for  the  dredging 
operations  of  the  Fato  Mines  (Colombia),  Ltd.,  a 
subsidiary  of  the  Oroville  Dredging  Company,  which 
has  had  such  remarkable  success  in  California.  The 
company  has  already  expended  (exclusive  of  the 
purchase  price  of  its  properties,  which  were  paid  for 
in  shares)  considerably  over  half  a  million  dollars, 
and  will  require  for  its  permanent  dam  (to  be  a 
concrete  structure  65  feet  high,  and  requiring  15,000 
cubic  yards  of  masonry — it  will  be  the  finest  in 
Colombia)  an  additional  $174,000,  besides  other 
large  expenditures.  The  company's  bench  gravel 
deposits  in  the  Fato  basin  have  been  thoroughly 
proved  by  boring,  special  attention  is  being  paid 
to  sanitation,  and  with  the  company's  experience 
elsewhere  and  its  resources,  this  enterprise  vnW  un- 
doubtedly prove  a  success  and  redeem  the  rather 
unfortunate  past  history  of  dredging  in  Colombia. 
Development  on  a  large  scale,  preparatory  to 
dredging  operations,  is  also  being  undertaken  in 
the  vicinity  of  Caceres  by  another  American  corpora- 
tion,   the    Breitung   Mines    Corporation. 

Vein    mines    were    opened    in    Antioquia    as    early 


170  COLOMBIA 

as  I  58 1,  and  worked  all  during  the  Spanish  domina- 
tion, but  with  comparatively  meagre  results,  due 
to  the  crude  methods  employed.  In  1825  some 
rich  veins  near  Anori  were  worked,  and  soon  after 
an  Englishman,  Mr.  James,  erected  the  first  mills 
in  the  country  to  crush  the  Anori  ore  ;  an'd  his 
example  was  soon  followed,  especially  at  Amalfi, 
Remedios,  the  Bolivia,  Zancudo,  and  Frontino  mines. 
In  1 85 1  Mr.  Tyrrell  Moore,  another  Englishman, 
established  a  smelting  plant  at  Titiribi  for  the 
auriferous  ores  of  that  rich  region,  including  the 
Zancudo  Mine,  whose  owners,  however,  erected  their 
own  smeltery  under  a  German  miner,  Reinhold 
Paschke,  and  Moore's  works,  after  an  expenditure 
of  £120,000,  failed.  Several  other  disastrous 
failures,  especially  of  English  companies  (the 
British  have  gone  in  more  for  quartz  mines,  the 
Americans  showing  a  preference  for  placers),  have 
marred  Colombian  mining  history,  but,  where  not 
due  to  the  introduction  of  machinery  at  a  greater 
expense  than  the  circumstances  warranted,  have  been 
of  a  character  to  impeach  the  quality,  not  of  the 
ore,  but  of  the  management,  and  are  more  than 
redeemed  by  the  long  and  successful  history,  not 
only  of  native  enterprises,  but  of  other  foreign 
mining  companies.  One  of  the  most  notable  of 
the  latter  is  the  Frontino  and  Bolivia  Mining  Com- 
pany, Ltd.,  which  in  1852  bought  the  Frontino 
Mine  and  several  others  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Remedios  (the  most  important  of  all  the  mining 
sections  of  Colombia).  After  weathering  early 
managerial  misfortunes,  it  has  had  a  successful 
career,  and  has  been  almost  constantly  one  of  the 
best  managed  and  most  profitable  mines  in  Colombia  : 
of  late  years  working  costs  have  been  very  high, 
expenditure  and  revenue  almost  balancing  ;  but  it 
is  now  making  extensive  additions  in  equipment, 
power-plant,  and  new  development,  which  will  insure. 


MINES   AND   FORESTS  171 

according  to  its  engineers,  a  net  working  profit  of 
£3,000  a  month.  They  report  that  its  two  prin- 
cipal mines,  the  Salada  and  the  Silencio,  are  still 
only  in  their  infancy,  and  another  property,  the 
Marmajito-Cogote,  of  great  promise.  Another  im- 
portant mine  in  the  same  district,  thought  by  some 
to  be  on  the  same  lode,  is  the  San  Nicolas,  worked 
by  a  French  company  ;  this  mine  was  the  first  to 
introduce  the  cyanide  process  in  Colombia. 

Scarcely  inferior  to  the  production  of  the  Remedios 
district  is  that  of  Titiribi.  Here  is  the  great  gold 
and  silver  mine  of  Zancudo,  which  we  have  already 
mentioned,  and  its  annexes,  owned  ^  and  very  ably 
managed  by  native  Colombians  ;  originally  worked 
for  gold,  later  the  silver  output  became  far  the  more 
important,  having  reached  in  some  years  three 
quarters  of  a  million  dollars.  It  has  the  singular 
advantage,  too,  of  being  situated  at  the  foot  of  an 
extensive  coal  deposit,  and  is  also  within  convenient 
access  of  Medellin,  the  commercial  centre  and 
political  capital  of  the  department  of  Antioquia,  a 
thriving  and  progressive  city,  the  second  in  the 
Republic.  An  assay  office  was  erected  in  Medellin 
in  1858,  and  two  others  in  the  early  eighties.  The 
mint  for  the  coinage  of  gold  and  silver,  closed  for 
a  number  of  years,  has  just  been  reopened.  There 
is  also  a  very  creditable  School  of  Mines,  where 
competent  engineers  are  trained  ;  the  Antioquieiios 
are  born  miners.  The  lower  classes  furnish  an 
excellent  quality  of  labour,2  which  gives  this  generally 
healthful  region  a  still  further  advantage  for  mining 
purposes  over  other  parts  of  Colombia  ;    among  the 

'  A  majority  of  the  shares  or  rights  is  held  by  the  Compagnie 
Unifiee  du  Zancudo  (capital  4,000,000  francs),  the  shares  of  which 
in  turn  are  principally  owned  by  Colombians. 

-  Labour,  however,  is  scarce,  as  the  men  prefer  to  mine  for  their 
own  account,  and  even  high  wages  often  fail  to  tempt  them  into  the 
employ  of  the  large  companies. 


172  COLOMBIA 

middle  and  upper  classes,  able  engineers  and  mine 
managers  are  to  be  found.  Some  of  the  best 
managed  and  most  profitable  mines  in  the  country, 
besides  the  Zancudo,  e.g.,  La  Constancia  and  the 
Solferino  at  Anori,  La  Cascada  at  Manizales,  are 
operated  and  engineered  entirely  by  Colombians,  and 
many  Antioquieiios  have  become  wealthy  in  the 
mining  industry. 

Another  rich  mining  section  is  that  of  Marmato 
and  Supia.  The  mines  of  that  name  belong  to  the 
Government,  being  leased  out.  In  1825  the  London 
firm  of  Goldschmidt  &  Co.  leased  the  mines,  and 
did  much  to  improve  the  methods  of  mining.  They 
are  now  under  lease  to  the  Colombian  Mining  and 
Exploration  Company,  of  London,  which  pays  the 
Government  an  annual  rental  of  £3,200.  Electric 
power  is  being  installed,  and  a  recent  report  says  : 
"  The  energetic  development  at  greater  depths  of 
one  of  the  numerous  groups  of  mines  leased  to  this 
company  has  given  such  excellent  results  and  so 
fully  confirmed  anticipation  that  a  6,ooo-ton  plant 
has  been  decided  on,  and  shipment  already  com- 
menced." Near  here  are  the  Echandia  mines,  which 
made  a  celebrated  fortune  a  few  years  ago  for  a 
Colombian  named  Chaves,  and  the  Pantano  mine, 
which  has  been  successfully  operated  by  the  Western 
Andes  Mining  Company.  All  these  mines  are 
situated  in  the  .Western  Cordillera,  not  far  from 
the  Cauca  River  ;  throughout  the  whole  extent  of 
the  mountains  surrounding  the  upper  Cauca  Valley 
some  placers  and  quartz  mines  are  worked,  though 
hitherto  on  an  insignificant  scale.  Recent  purchases 
by  French  and  Belgian  syndicates,  however,  which 
in  addition  have  procured  various  options,  promise  a 
more  active  development.  Further  south,  around 
Pasto  and  towards  the  Ecuadorian  frontier,  a  new 
rich  region  has  been  opened  up  in  the  last  few  years  ; 
several  hundred  mines  have  been  denounced,  especi- 


MINES   AND   FORESTS  173 

ally  in  the  districts  of  Samaniego  and  Mallama,  and 
a  number  of  English  and  Americans  have  intro- 
duced modern  machinery  and  are  working  good 
quartz    properties. 

On  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Central  Cordillera 
there  are  several  localities  of  interest.  The  Mariquita 
region,  which  had  fame  in  the  Spanish  days,  is  again 
active  :  in  this  range,  too,  are  Santa  Ana  and  La 
Manta,  Government  mines  acquired  by  inheritance 
from  the  Spanish  Crown,  more  interesting  historically 
than  of  present  day  importance.  It  was  here  that 
in  1785  a  mining  engineer  of  great  note  in  his  day, 
d'Elhuyar,  was  imported  by  the  Viceroy  to  introduce 
the  Freiberg  process.  During  the  eleven  years  he 
was  in  charge  the  expenses  were  $232,641,  against 
a  gross  product  of  $27,247  !  Forty  years  later,  the 
English  firm  of  Herring,  Graham,  &  Powles  met 
with  a  similar  experience,  erecting  smelting -works 
at  great  expense,  and  in  thirteen  years  spending  over 
£200,000  and  taking  out  silver  valued  at  £28,000. 
Subsequent  working  by  them,  however,  was  more 
profitable.  The  mines  are  now  under  lease  to  the 
Anglo -Colombian  Investment  Company,  of  London. 
The  gold  veins  in  the  Tolima  district,  with  few  excep- 
tions, are  rich  superficially,  but  pinch  out  at  a  depth 
of  ten  to  twenty  fathoms,  alluvial  gold  washings  being 
more  abundant  and  giving  better  results.  In  this 
region  the  most  important  mines  are  those  of  the 
North  Tolima  Mining  Company,  of  London,  at 
Frias.  Since  their  rediscovery  in  1870  they  have 
been  continuously  and  profitably  worked:  in  1895 
the  annual  output  of  silver  was  little  less  than 
$800,000.  The  company  was  reorganized  in  19 10 
with  a  capital  of  £100,000,  and  has  been  shipping 
some  1,600  sacks  (65  kilos  each)  of  silver  a  year, 
by   muleback   to    the   Dorada   Railroad. 

The  Eastern  Cordillera  is  of  far  less  importance 
than  the  other  two,  though  gold  has  been  discovered 


174  COLOMBIA 

at  a  number  of  points.  Here,  too,  was  the  greatest 
"  bonanza  "  ever  found  in  Colombia  :  the  mine  of 
Pie  de  Gallo  yielded  in  a  few  hours  64  kilograms  of 
gold,  but  that  was  in  Spanish  days.  At  present, 
the  only  important  foreign  companies  are  near 
Bucaramanga,  the  Francia  Gold  Mining  Company, 
a  French  concern,  especially  having  been  particularly 
active  in  191 1  in  acquiring  title  to  additional  mining 
claims. 

The  rivers  of  the  Pacific  littoral  are  nearly  all 
auriferous,  several  of  them  being  strikingly  rich.  In 
the  earlier  days,  the  Barbacoas  region  was  especi- 
ally productive,'  but  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  1851 
crippled  the  placers.  Again,  in  the  sixties,  there 
was  quite  a  boom  and  an  influx  of  California  miners, 
but  the  climate  proved  a  deterrent.  Lately  there 
has  been  a  considerable  revival  of  interest  all  along 
the  coast  ;  a  French  company  has  been  established 
on  the  Timbiqui  for  a  number  of  years,  obtaining  a 
steady,  though  not  a  very  large  yield.  An  Australian 
company  has  also  been  at  work,  but  its  first  attempts 
at  dredging  were  unsuccessful.  Nothing  on  a  large 
scale  has  yet  been  done  :  such  production  as  there 
is  from  this  region  is  obtained  chiefly  by  native 
labourers,  who  still  continue  the  primitive  methods 
of  washing  the  sands  in  bateas,  the  Colombian  sub- 
stitute for  the  pan. 

We  already  had  occasion  in  speaking  of  platinum 
to  refer  to  the  rich  placers  of  the  Choco  region^ 
the  Atrato  and  San  Juan  Rivers  and  their  tributaries. 
This  also  was  a  goldfield  but  little  inferior  to  Antio- 
quia  in  the  days  when  slaves  could  be  employed — 
the  annual  output  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  was  about  a  million  dollars — but  until  recently 

'  A  very  interesting  and  thorough  account  of  the  way  these  mines 
used  to  be  worked  by  the  negro  slaves  is  given  in  Stevenson  : 
Twenty  Years'  Residence  in  South  America,  vol.  ii.,  p.  423  (London, 
1825). 


,  ''aSi,««*    rAe  "*  ♦»*  ''♦^ 


MINES   AND   FORESTS  175 

the  difficulties  of  access,  the  bad  climate,  and  reputa- 
tion for  fevers,  not  wholly  undeserved,  and  the  decided 
inferiority  of  the  labour,  almost  entirely  negro,  to 
that  of  Antioquia,  have  been  deterrents.  With  in- 
creased knowledge  and  modern  practices  of  sanita- 
tion and  scientific  methods  of  overcoming  obstacles, 
the  Choc6  will  again  become  one  of  the  great  gold 
regions  of  the  world.  Robert  Blake  White,  the 
English  engineer,  who  has  contributed  so  much  to  our 
knowledge  of  Colombia,  said,  speaking  of  the  Choco  : 
"I  do  not  know  any  rivers  in  any  country  outside 
of  Colombia  where  such  favourable  conditions  for 
the  extraction  of  gold  exist,"  and  his  opinion  has 
been  confirmed  by  subsequent  explorers,  A  well- 
known  American  mining  engineer,  Henry  G. 
Granger,  who  has  discovered  and  located  more 
claims  than  any  other  man  in  this  section  and  per- 
haps in  the  whole  of  Colombia,  attempted  dredging 
a  few  years  ago,  but  failed  :  nothing  daunted,  he 
is  again  at  it,  with  new  financial  backing  from  well- 
known  mining  capitalists  of  New  York.  And  a  great 
stimulus  to  this  section  will  undoubtedly  be  given 
by  the  Anglo -Colombian  Development  Company,  of 
which  mention  has  already  been  made.  This  com- 
pany, in  addition  to  its  own  exploration  work,  is 
rendering  a  much-needed  public  service  in  establish- 
ing steamship  communication  on  the  San  Juan  River 
from  Buenaventura. 

A  useful  note  of  warning  is  sounded  by  Consul 
Isaac  A.  Manning  in  Daily  Consular  Reports, 
October   31,    191 2  : — 

"  This  is  not  a  poor  man's  mining  country.  A  prospector  without 
capital  or  backing  stands  little  show  in  Colombia,  largely  because 
of  the  lack  of  transportation  facilities,  the  rugged  character  of  the 
country,  the  rigors  of  the  cUmate,  and  the  difficulties  of  securing 
supplies  and  food  except  at  high  prices.  Principally,  however,  this 
is  true  because  no  quantity  of  '  panning '  or  '  rocker '  ground  is  to 
be  found  from  which  the  prospector  can  recoup  his  expense  money. 


176  COLOMBIA 

"Scientific  prospecting  only  will  pay  in  Colombia.  Very  few 
paying  ledges  have  been  discovered,  and  they  are  frequently  much 
disturbed  or  contain  '  horses '  of  barren  rock.  That  there  are 
numerous  deposits  yet  awaiting  discovery  cannot  be  doubted  ;  but 
as  a  general  thing  these  will  be  found,  if  placer,  to  carry  such  an 
'  overload '  of  surface  material  as  to  require  machinery  for  satis- 
factory prospecting  or  development ;  if  quartz,  to  be  of  low  grade 
and,  in  the  main,  to  carry  refractory  ores.  .  .  .  Most  of  the  gold 
veins  in  Colombia  are  of  a  very  refractory  nature  and  can  be 
worked  to  advantage  only  with  the  most  modern  and  improved 
machinery  and  systems." 

The  mining  laws  '  are  very  liberal,  and  every 
facility  is  given  to  the  prospector  to  explore  and 
denounce  mines,  not  only  in  public  lands,  but  in 
privately  owned  property.  There  is  liberality,  too, 
in  the  grant  of  easements  necessary  for  the  proper 
working  of  mines,  which  are  treated  on  the  same 
basis  as  public  utilities  and  the  right  of  expropriation 
or  condemnation  given  for  their  benefit.  There  is, 
however,  considerable  red  tape,  and  sometimes  there 
is  apt  to  be  much  delay  before  final  title  is  adjudi- 
cated by  the  Government,  but  the  danger  of  "  jump- 
ing "  claims  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  expenses 
for  locating  claims,  obtaining  possession,  and 
acquiring  title  are  comparatively  small,  and  the 
annual  taxes  are  very  low  :  and  if  the  equivalent 
of  forty  years'  taxes  is  paid  in  at  once,  an  inde- 
feasible title  in  fee  is  acquired,  exempt  in  perpetuity 
from  future  taxes.  Another  feature  of  the  law,  while 
attractive  from  some  standpoints,  especially  that  of 
a  large  company  investing  heavily  for  plant  and 
machinery  and  naturally  desiring  reserve  ores  in  the 
neighbourhood,  has  done  much  to  hinder  the  mining 
development  of  the  country,  and  that  is,  that  so  long 
as  the  taxes  are  paid  no  annual  work  whatsoever  need 
be    done    in    order   to    preserve    the    locator's    rights. 

'  See  The  Mining  Laws  o/'Cfi/owZ)/a,  translatedvvithan  Introduction 
and  Notes  by  Phanor  J.  Eder,  of  the  New  York  Bar  (Washington, 
D.C.,  1912). 


MINES   AND   FORESTS  177 

The    consequence    is,    there   are   a   great   number    of 
mines    which    have    been   denounced   and    acquired — 
fully  half  of  them — whose  owners,  for  lack  of  capital 
or  of  initiative,   do   nothing  but   wait   for  some  one 
to  come  along  and  buy  them  out.     And  because  of 
exaggerated  ideas  as  to  the  wealth  of  the  properties 
which   they   themselves   have   never   scientifically   ex- 
plored, they  often  ask  inflated  and  prohibitive  prices. 
Consequently    a    large   area   of   known   good   mining 
land  lies  unproductive  because  the  owners  will  neither 
themselves  exploit  it  nor  permit  others  to  do  so  on 
reasonable  terms.     The  policy  of  the  law  for  many 
years  fluctuated  greatly  on  this  point,  but  the  present 
system  was  finally  adopted  in    1896.      There  are,  of 
course,    two   sides    to   the   question  :    a   reconciliation 
might  perhaps  be  effected  by  amending  the  law  as 
to   future   denouncements,   so   as    to   require   working 
except  in  cases  where  adjoining  or  nearby  claims  are 
held   under   the  same  ownership   as   mines  in  active 
operation.     The  law  in  regard  to  the  use  of  waters 
might  also  be  advantageously  amended,  so  as  to  do 
away    with    the    preference    now    given    to    the    first 
discoverer   of   a   mine  in   a   neighbourhood,   whether 
he  works  his  mine  or  not,  and  likewise  the  procedure 
for  assessing  damages  is  susceptible  of  improvement, 
the   present   system   giving   plentiful   opportunity   for 
petty  but  annoying  extortion. 

A  valuable  privilege  appurtenant  to  mining  claims 
is  the  preferential  right  to  an  adjudication  of  a  large 
tract  of  public  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  the  pertenencia, 
as  the  mining  unit  of  soil  granted  is  called.  As, 
with  rare  exceptions,  the  public  lands  in  the  mining 
regions  are  forest  covered,  this  insures  a  supply  of 
the  necessary  timber.  The  nation  can  well  afford 
to  be  generous  with  its  public  lands  and  forests. 
Even  apart  from  the  great  llanos  and  selvas  of  the 
Amazon  and  Orinoco  watersheds,  about  one -third  of 
the  area  of  the  country  is  still  in  the  public  domain. 

13 


178  COLOMBIA 

The  natural  wealth  of  the  forest  areas  is  enormous, 
but  alas  I  it  is  for  the  most  part  inaccessible.  A 
favourite  form  of  subsidy  in  railroad  and  other  con- 
cessions has  been  a  grant  of  public  lands.  Exclusive 
rights  to  exploitation  of  the  forests  for  a  term  of 
years  have  also  been  frequently  given,  sometimes 
for  a  particular  product,  e.g.,  the  algarroba  bean,  a 
concession  for  which  covering  the  whole  Republic 
was  given  a  great  number  of  years  ago  and  is  still 
in  force,  sometimes  for  all  forest  products  within 
defined  but  generously  large  areas. 

Such  concessions  in  the  past  have  proved  cheats  : 
they  have  done  practically  nothing  to  develop  the 
country.  The  forests  are  often  an  illusory  source 
of  wealth  at  the  present  time  :  the  natural  difficulties 
of  exploitation,  added  to  the  already  thrice -cursed 
obstacles  of  transportation  and  labour  supply,  are 
usually  too  great.  Very  little  timber-cutting  has 
been  done  :  there  are  few  sawmills  in  the  country  ; 
in  the  forests  accessible  to  river  and  coast,  two  trees 
of  the  same  species  are  rarely  found  near  each  other  ; 
for  the  domestic  needs  of  construction,  boxing,  and 
fuel,  the  trees  are  felled  oftener  with  a  machete  than 
with  an  axe,  and  are  sawed  even  lengthwise  by  hand, 
at  which  feat  some  of  the  native  woodsmen  are 
remarkably  expert.  It  is  only  the  more  valuable 
cabinet  and  dyewoods,  and  occasionally  railroad  ties, 
that  the  natives  take  the  trouble  to  market  for  export. 
The  Colombian  mahogany  •  is  especially  in  demand 
abroad  :  it  comes  chiefly  from  the  region  of  the- 
Sinu,  the  forests  of  which  yield  other  valuable  export 
products — rubber  and  balata,  medicinal  plants  like 
ipecac,  sarsaparilla,  balsams,  and  resins  :  from  near 
by  comes  the  once  famous  balsam  of  Tolu.   From  the 

'  Cariniana  pyriformis,  not  the  true  mahogany,  but  one  of  the  best 
imitations  now  marketed.  Sec  U.S.  Dcpt.  of  Agriculture,  Forest 
Service,  Circular  185  (Washington,  191 1).  The  true  mahogany  is 
occasionally,  but  very  rarely,  found  in  Colombia. 


MINES   AND   FORESTS  179 

Magdalena  forests,   too,  useful  products  are  brought 
out.      The   hunt   for  orchids   is   assiduously   pursued, 
and  in  spite  of  the  devastation  of  the  most  favour- 
able regions,!  the  trade  is  still  not  insignificant.     But 
the    most    important    present-day    exports    of    forest 
products  are  of  rubber  and  ivory-nuts  ;    one  of  the 
chief   regions   for   the  former  is   the   Amazon  water- 
shed ;    the  Putumayo  River,  the  scene  of  the   Peru- 
vian  atrocities   that   recently   so   stirred   the   civilized 
world,    is   claimed   by   Colombia,    but   its    production 
scarcely    figures    in    the    export    statistics    of    rubber 
from   Colombia.      Ivory-nuts   come   chiefly   from   the 
forests  near  the  Pacific  coast  accessible  to  the  ports 
of  Buenaventura  and  Tumaco,   from  the  Atrato  and 
other  sections,  whence  shipments  are  made  via  Carta- 
gena ;    at  some  places  in  the  mountains  of  the  Choco 
a    riotous    abundance    of    tagua    is    reported,    as    yet 
totally  unexploited  ;    and  from  the  banks  of  the  Mag- 
dalena and  its  tributaries,  especially  the   Sogamoso, 
where    the    best    quality    is    found.      The    tagua,    or 
vegetable  ivory,  is  the  kernel  of  a  nut  from  a  palm- 
tree,  the  Phytelephas  macrocarpa  of  science,  and  can 
be   had   by   the   thousands   for   the   mere   trouble   of 
locating  the  trees  and  picking  the  fallen  nuts  from 
the   ground  ;    nevertheless,   few   attempts   have   been 
made   to   improve  on  the  old  methods  of  getting  it 
in,   which  depend  largely  upon  the  lazy  inclinations 
of  the  negroes,  whom  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  tempt 
into  any  activity  beyond  that  necessary  to  satisfy  the 
most  primitive  needs. 

Not  all  of  the  baldios — the  Government  domains 
— are  densely  wooded  :  far  from  it.  There  is  much 
public  land,  fertile,  favourably  and  healthily  situated, 
and  easily  cleared  for  grazing  or  cultivation,  that 
is  to  be  had  for  the  taking,  and  that  would  furnish  a 
livelihood  for  energetic  and  adaptable  immigrants. 
The  laws  as  to  baldios  are  liberal  ;  a  colonist,  by 
'  See  Millican  :  Adventures  of  an  Orchid  Hunter. 


180  COLOMBIA 

cultivating  and  fencing,  acquires  title  to  the  tract 
improved  and  to  an  adjacent  area  of  equal  dimen- 
sions ;  and  title  can  also  be  obtained  by  petition^ 
surveying,  and  the  payment  of  small  fees.  But  the 
tide  of  immigration  that  Colombia  so  much  needs 
has  flowed  to  the  other  countries,  because  of  greater 
stability  of  government,  better  educational  and  social 
advantages,  and  superior  pecuniary  inducements 
offered  by  the  Governments,  whereas  Colombia  is 
still  half-hearted  in  her  desire  to  attract  foreign 
immigrants.  Citizens  there  are  who  do  not  hesitate 
to  publicly  and  emphatically  declare  that  Colom- 
bians are  better  off  without  foreign  settlers,  even 
of  their  own  religion.  This  is  a  spirit  of  petty 
jealousy  and  provincialism  which  loses  sight  of  the 
fact  that  there  is  ample  room  in  their  country  for 
five  or  ten  times  the  present  population  ;  that  far 
from  her  independence  being  jeopardized,  it  would 
be  strengthened  and  assured  by  such  an  increase  ; 
that  in  the  other  Spanish  American  countries  none 
have  profited  so  much  by  the  influx  of  foreigners 
as  the  natives  themselves,  whose  political  ascend- 
ancy has  been  no  wise  diminished,  who  cannot  be 
and  are  not  displaced,  but  on  the  contrary  whose 
lands  are  increased  in  value,  whose  labour  is  better 
remunerated,  whose  opportunities  for  gain  and 
advancement  are  enhanced  much  more  than  are  the 
foreigners'.  So  the  Colombian  nation  could  well 
afford  to  be  generous,  not  merely  in  throwing  open 
the  public  lands,  but  in  offering  every  possible  in- 
ducement, even  at  a  present  pecuniary  sacrifice,  to 
the   immigrant. 


CHAPTER   XII 

THE   COAST   REGIONS 

The  Goajira,  Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta,  Depart- 
ments of  Magdalena,  Bolivar  and  Atlantico^  the 
Choco,  the  Pacific. 

It  is  curious  that  the  first  land  in  Colombia  visited  by 
the  white  man  is  still  inhabited  almost  entirely  by 
unsubjected  Indians,  descendants  probably  of  those 
Caribs  who  made  such  sturdy  resistance  to  the  early 
onslaughts  of  the  Spaniards.  To  this  day,  the 
Goajiros,  a  hardy,  warlike  race,  have  maintained 
in  large  measure  their  independence  ;  although  carry- 
ing on  commercial  intercourse  with  the  whites  and 
nominally  submissive  to  the  authority  of  the  Colombia 
Government,  they  have  hitherto  resisted  all  attempts 
at   subjection   or  civilization. 

They  inhabit  the  Goajira  Peninsula,  a  low  plain 
extending  from  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo  in  Venezuela 
westward  until  the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta 
is  reached — an  arid,  sandy,  and  unproductive  stretch, 
except  in  the  southern  part.  Its  only  river  of  any 
note  is  the  one  that  may  be  called  its  boundary,  the 
Rio  Hacha  (also  called  Rancheria),  at  the  mouth  of 
which  is  the  small  port  of  the  same  name.  Here  is 
handled  such  little  trade  as  there  is,'  the  Indians 
coming  into  the  town  to  barter  their  horses  and  cattle, 
hides,  pearls,  brazil  wood  and  dividivi,  for  bright- 
coloured  cloths,  corn,  hardware  and,  of  course,  fire- 
arms and  the  still  more  destructive  rum.  Singularly 
*  Exports  (191 1),  ^234,460  ;  imports,  $83,969. 

181 


182  COLOMBIA 

among  the  South  American  Indians,  the  Goajiros  are 
expert  riders,  so  of  horses  they  breed  a  good  stock, 
sturdy  if  not  sleek. 

The  harbour  is  poor,  the  water  being  shallow  for 
a  long  distance  from  shore,  so  that  all  trade  is 
handled  by  lighters.  Steamers  rarely  call  here,  traffic 
being  by  sailing  vessels  with  Santa  Marta  or  Cura(;oa. 

Hides,  goatskins,  and  the  dividivi  used  for  tanning 
and  found  wild  in  the  forests  of  the  southern  part, 
constitute  the  chief  articles  of  export  from  Riohacha, 
much  of  the  trade  of  the  Goajiro  Indians,  however, 
being  diverted  by  Venezuelans  from  the  Gulf  of 
Maracaibo.  These  Indians  are  divided  into  a  number 
of  tribes,  each  living  apart  from  the  others,  leading 
a  rather  nomad  existence  and  organized  somewhat 
like  the  old  Scottish  clans.  The  tribes  are  almost 
constantly  in  feud  one  with  another,  the  duty  of 
vengeance,  like  the  vendetta,  being  passed  on  from 
generation  to  generation,  and  woe  to  the  white  man 
who  gets  in  the  way.  Physically  they  are  of  average 
height,  well  proportioned,  even  handsome.  Those 
near  the  coast  live  on  fish,  those  in  the  interior  chiefly 
on  meat.  They  sleep  in  hammocks  of  their  own 
weaving  and  their  huts  are  built  up  on  poles  and 
roofed  with  the  stems  and  leaves  of  reeds.  The  in- 
habitants of  the  lake-front  dwell  in  similar  huts,  with 
the  peculiarity,  which  struck  the  original  discoverers 
so  forcibly,  that  the  piles  are  driven  into  the  bottom 
of  the  lake  and  the  huts  appear  above  the  water. 

In  the  central  and  southern  portions  of  the  penin- 
sula there  is  a  zone  of  greater  fertility,  and  even  the 
northern  sandy  stretch  could  be  irrigated  and  made 
productive.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  peninsula, 
salt,  lignite,  anthracite,  large  deposits  of  phosphates, 
is  unexploited,  although  road  building  would  be  easy. 
The  Goajiros — their  number  is  variously  estimated 
at  from  30,000  to  60,000 — could  undoubtedly  be 
"  civilized  "  and  converted  into  useful  labourers  for 


THE   COAST  REGIONS 


183 


the  benefit  of  their  civilizers,  if  the  well-meant  efiforts 
of  the  Catholic  missionaries  received  greater  en- 
couragement and  support.  The  missionaries  have 
devised  the  only  practicable  means  of  educating  them, 
namely,  receiving  the  young  children  as  internes  in 
special  schools,  which  are  called  orfellnatos,  where, 
"  orphaned  "  from  their  parents,  they  receive  far 
kinder  treatment  than  ever  they  would  get  at  home. 
Politically,  the  Goajira  Peninsula  belongs  to  the 
Department  of  Magdalena,  the  capital  of  which  is 
Santa  Marta,  the  oldest  city  in  Colombia.  Its  well- 
sheltered  harbour  made  it  at  one  time  a  commercial 
rival  of  Cartagena,  but  it  had  sunk  into  a  decadence 
which  became  intensified  when  the  completion  of 
the  Barranquilla  Railway  took  away  the  last  vestiges 
of  its  trade  with  the  interior  departments,  to  revive 
with  the  rapid  growth  in  the  last  few  years  of  the 
banana  industry  under  the  stimulus  of  the  United 
Fruit  Company.  In  191 1,  154  steamers  and  115 
sailing-vessels  touched  at  Santa  Marta.  The  banana 
plantations  are  situated  on  the  low-lying  plains  made 
humid  by  the  Magdalena  and  by  streams  from  the 
mountains  situated  between  the  sea  and  the  foot  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  especially  along  the  40-mile 
stretch  of  railroad  from  Cienaga  to  the  terminus  of 
the  line.  The  production  has  grown  by  leaps  and 
bounds,  as  the  following  table  of  exports  in  the  last 
ten   years   shows  : — 


Year. 

No.  of  Bunches. 

1902 

3x4,006 

1903 

475.448 

1904 

787.244 

1905 

863,750 

1906 

1,295,228 

1907 

1.783.907 

1908 

2,028,850 

1909 

3.222,152 

I91O 

3.844.519 

I9II 

4,901.894 

191 2  (first  six  months) 

2,295,185 

184  COLOMBIA 

The  value  at  Santa  Marta  of  the  banana  exports 
for  191 1  is  officially  given  as  $2,112,855  ^^^  ^^^ 
the  first  six  months  of  191 2  at  $1,010,217  ;  other 
exports  (191 1)   $190,368  ;  imports  $378,751. 

The  banana  possibilities  of  the  region  are  far  from 
exhausted.  The  area  under  cultivation  is  some 
22,000  acres,  consisting,  according  to  the  tax  roll  for 
191  I,  of  332  plantations,  on  which  some  5,000 
labourers,  nearly  all  negroes,  find  employment,  valued 
at  $2,553,200  ;  I  while  there  is  still  some  100,000 
acres  not  developed,  most  of  it  Government  land, 
which  is  adapted  for  banana  raising  and  to  which 
the  railroad  could  be  readily  and  in  all  likelihood 
will  soon  be  extended.  In  point  of  health  it  compares 
rather  favourably  with  banana  regions  in  other 
countries.  The  prevalent  malaria  could,  with  proper 
sanitation,  be  kept  in  check  :  as  a  first  step,  the 
United  Fruit  Company  is  now  planning  a  modern 
hospital  in  Santa  Marta.  Against  this  all-powerful 
company  there  has  been  much  complaint,  as  there 
naturally  would  be  against  any  monopoly  ;  2  but 
some  of  the  complaints  have  undoubtedly  been  justi- 
fied. Some  planters,  especially  the  absentee  land- 
lords of  Barranquilla,  have  even  complained  that 
they  are  not  making  any  money,  but  there  is   little 

'  This  valuation  was  made  on  a  basis  of  $140  per  hectare,  whereas 
in  the  opinion  of  the  Governor  of  the  Department  the  average  value 
is  $400,  which  would  give  a  total  valuation  of  nearly  $8,000,000. 

^  The  Atlantic  Fruit  Company,  another  American  Corporation, 
assisted  in  a  measure  by  the  Hamburg  American  Line,  attempted 
recently  to  break  this  monopoly,  by  enticing  the  planters  to  violate 
their  contracts  with  the  United  and  purchasing  or  leasing  a  number 
of  plantations,  but  through  financial  difficulties  was  unable  to  com- 
plete the  payments.  The  United  Fruit  Company,  which  had  un- 
successfully endeavoured  first  in  the  Colombian,  then  in  the  New 
York  Courts  to  obtain  a  temporary  injunction  against  the  Atlantic 
Fruit  Compan)',  then  purchased  several  of  these  plantations.  The 
fight  is  still  on,  the  Atlantic,  now  reorganized,  continuing  to  ship  con- 
siderable quantities  of  bananas,  and  the  planters  getting  the  benefit 
of  increased  prices. 


THE   COAST   REGIONS  185 

doubt  that  the  industry  has  been  extremely  profit- 
able, not  only  for  the  United  Fruit  Company  and  the 
railroad,  but  also  for  the  planters.  The  total  cost 
of  clearing  the  land  and  raising  the  first  crop  is 
estimated  at  about  $45  an  acre  and  the  annual  yield 
at  $40  an  acre. 

The  Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta,  the  huge 
mountain  mass,  with  a  base  of  over  5,000  square 
miles  in  area,  which  dominates  the  banana  region, 
presents  a  very  great  variety  of  climate  and  soil, 
ranging  from  the  tropical  zone  at  its  base  to  the 
intense  cold  of  its  perpetually  snow-clad  summits, 
the  highest  of  which  is  19,000  feet.  It  is  because 
of  its  great  extent  of  lands  climatically  temperate 
and  healthy,  its  large  area  capable  of  producing 
northern  crops,  while  the  valleys  and  plains  at  the 
foot  of  the  hills  can  yield  tropical  and  sub -tropical 
products,  and  of  its  nearness  to  the  sea,  that  this 
favoured  region  seems  destined  to  receive  a  large 
influx  of  foreign  immigration  ;  but  at  present  the 
only  crop  that  is  receiving  much  attention  on  the 
mountain  is  coffee,  many  new  plantations  of  which 
are  being  started. 

According  to  the  tax  roll  of  the  Department  of 
Magdalena  there  were  in  191  i  1,718  coffee  estates, 
valued  at  $302,158,  most  of  which  are  situated  on 
the  Sierra  ;  99  cacao  plantations,  valued  at 
$162,240  ;  505  small  sugar  plantations,  valued  at 
$316,508  ;    and  9,442  houses,  valued  at  $2,972,276.1 

In  the  colder  climes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  live  the 
Ahruaco  Indians,  a  docile  race,  in  marked  contrast 
to  their  near  neighbours,  the  Goajiros.  The  Goajiro 
wears  little  clothing  ;  the  Ahruaco,  as  a  protection 
against  the  cold,  wears  heavy  cotton  clothing,  con- 
sisting of  trousers  and  a  long,  heavy,  characteristic 
mantle.     Their  huts  are  round  and  very  low,  and  with 

'  All  these   valuations  also  are   too  low  in  the   opinion   of  the 
Governor. 


186  COLOMBIA 

but  a  small  entrance,  closed  with  a  door.  These 
Indians  are  nominally  Christians,  there  being  several 
chapels  in  their  villages,  but  rarely  priests  to  fill 
them.  They  are  also  "  civilized,"  but  their  wants 
are  few.  Their  furniture  and  household  belongings 
are  scanty — a  cooking-pot,  a  pair  of  wooden  stools 
and  knapsacks  constituting  their  sole  furniture. 
Boards  in  the  upper  part  of  the  hut  serve  for  their 
sleeping  quarters.  "Man  and  wife  live  separate, 
consequently  the  huts  usually  are  in  pairs,  one  close 
to  another  ;  between  the  two  there  is  a  stone  on 
which  the  wife  places  food  for  the  husband.  Here 
he  eats  his  meal  and  entertains  himself  when  his 
wife  and  children  are  by."  They  are  fond  of  eating, 
but  can  go  a  long  time  without  food,  especially  when 
they  chew  coca,  a  habit  which  plays  an  important 
part  in  their  life.  They  live  chiefly  on  vegetable 
food,  of  which  they  raise  diversified  crops  from  wheat 
to  plantains.  Meat  they  seldom  eat,  but  they  indulge 
in  lizards  and  snails.  The  women  do  the  work  while 
the  men  chew  coca  and  get  drunk  on  the  rum  which 
the  white  man  gives  them  in  trade  for  their  cattle, 
to  which  they  devote  little  trouble,  the  animals  being 
left  to  graze  at  large. 

On  the  rear  or  southern  slopes  and  at  the  foot  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  lies  the  fertile  valley  of  the  River 
Cesar  and  the  Valle  Dupar  section.  The  absence  of 
good  roads  has  prevented  the  development  of  this 
promising  region,  and,  moreover,  the  white  settlers 
have  at  times  been  driven  away  by  the  onslaughts  of 
the  Motilones  Indians,  who  dwell  in  the  forests  of  the 
Eastern  Cordillera  to  the  east.  The  region  watered 
by  the  lower  Cesar  and  its  tributaries  is  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  richest  agriculturally  in  Colombia  : 
numerous  mountain  streams  provide  power  and 
natural  irrigation  :  there  are  large  stretches  of 
natural  pasture  in  the  valley  of  the  main  river  and 
in    the    vegas   and   valleys    of   its   affluent   streams — 


THE   COAST   REGIONS  187 

the  swampy  lands,  even,  well  adapted  for  rice 
culture,  could  be  profitably  utilized.  The  upper 
Cesar,  free  from  the  Motilones,  is  better  settled  and 
a  variety  of  crops  are  raised.  There  is  mineral 
wealth,  too — coal,  copper,  oil — but  unexploited.  The 
present  outlets  are  the  Cesar  River,  navigable  for  small 
boats,  and  a  trail  to  Rio  Hacha  and  to  Banco,  a  river 
port  on  the  Magdalena  at  its  junction  with  the  Cesar. 
Government  engineers  have  made  preliminary  surveys 
for  a  road  between  Chiriguana,  on  the  lower  Cesar,  and 
Riohacha,  the  length  of  which  would  be  only  some 
200  miles  and  level  all  the  way.  This  road  or  others 
round  or  across  the  Sierra  Nevada  to  Santa  Marta 
is  badly  needed  as  a  civilizing  factor  and  developer 
for  this,  one  of  the  most  promising  and  diversified 
sections  in  the  north  of  Colombia.  With  it,  especi- 
ally, the  Motilones  Indians,  whose  total  number 
cannot  be  more  than  3,000  or  4,000,  could  be  civi- 
lized or  at  least  be  prevented  from  terrorizing,  as 
they  do  now,  a  part  of  the  rich  Cesar  region. 

Launches  trafific  regularly  through  one  of  the 
mouths  of  the  Magdalena  between  the  Santa  Marta 
railway  and  Barranquilla,  whose  commercial  impor- 
tance we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention  in 
this  volume.  Half  the  foreign  commerce  of 
Colombia  passes  through  it.  Its  exports  (191 1) 
$8,244,491  ;  imports,  $9,613,555.  The  activities 
of  its  merchants,  among  whom  there  are  many 
foreigners,  Germans  predominating,  have  kept  this 
city,  since  thirty  or  forty  years  ago,  in  the  van  of 
progress  in  Colombia.  To-day  its  population 
reaches  52,000.  The  lower  classes  are  chiefly  black, 
including  quite  a  few  West  Indian  negroes.  For 
the  most  part,  they  find  employment  in  the  factories 
and  in  connection  with  the  large  shipping  business 
of  the  city.  The  industries  include  ship  repair  yards, 
brick  manufacture,  tanneries,  soap,  match,  candle,  and 
shoe  factories,  ice  and  electric  plant,  flour-mills,  and 


188  COLOMBIA 

a  large  cotton -spinning  factory  which  employs  some 
2,000  male  and  female  operatives.  Barranquilla  is 
rapidly  improving — the  most  disagreeable  feature,  the 
thick  dust  that  covered  the  streets,  is  being  done 
away  with  by  recent  paving.  The  town  can  boast  of 
many  material  comforts — telephones,  tramways,  hack 
service,  electric  lighting,  good  shops,  an  excellent 
market,  a  theatre,  a  hospital — and  there  is  consider- 
able social  life.  With  its  cosmopolitanism,  the  city 
would  be  an  agreeable  residence  for  foreigners,  were 
it  not  for  the  discomforting  heat,  which  is  often  quite 
trying  to  the  newcomer.  The  sanitation  of  the  city, 
too,  could  stand  improvement  ;  the  water  supply  is 
not  of  the  best,  and  the  sewerage  system  defective, 
but  there  are  a  few  progressive  doctors  in  the  town 
who  will,  it  is  hoped,  compel  the  introduction  of 
hygienic  measures.  The  project  perennially  revived 
of  improving  the  Ceniza  mouth  of  the  Magdalena, 
so  as  to  make  Barranquilla  a  seaport,  is  once  again 
being  put  forth.  But  as  with  so  many  other  projects, 
in  Colombia,  quien  sabeP 

West  of  Barranquilla,  situated  near  still  another 
mouth  of  the  Magdalena,  the  Dique  or  so-called  canal, 
is  Cartagena,  the  city  of  greatest  historical  interest 
in  the  New  World — "  Queen  of  the  Indies  "  was 
her  proud  title  in  the  Spanish  days.  What  memories 
does  not  the  name  evoke  of  the  visits  of  the  fleets, 
vast  treasure -ships,  of  the  daring  exploits  of  Drake 
and  Morgan,  of  buccaneers  and  pirates,  for  whom 
the  city  was  a  rich  prize,  of  Vernon's  unsuccessful 
siege,  and  of  the  dreaded  Holy  Inquisition  !  As  a 
defence  against  pirates  and  as  a  protection  against 
foreign  enemies,  the  massive  walls  and  fortifications 
which  made  this  the  strongest  fortress  in  the  New 
World  were  ordered  to  be  built  by  King  Philip  the 
Second.  Erected  at  a  cost  of  $59,000,000,  an 
enormous  sum  in  those  days,  they  still  stand,  an 
impressive  monument  to  the  majesty  that  was  Spain 


THE   COAST   REGIONS  189 

and  the  glory  that  was  the  Queen  of  the  Indies. 
During  the  struggle  for  independence,  by  a  brave 
resistance  to  a  four  months'  siege  by  the  Spaniards 
(1815),  she  endeared  herself  for  ever  to  the  hearts 
of  Colombians  and  earned  a  new  title,  "  The  City 
Heroic." 

Cartagena  has  preserved  her  old  Spanish  char- 
acter ;  besides  her  ramparts  and  fortifications,  many 
of  her  churches  and  public  buildings  are  relics  of 
the  past  ;  nowhere  in  the  Caribbean  cruises  now 
so  popular  do  tourists  find  any  town  at  all  approach- 
ing Cartagena  in  point  of  interest.  The  city  is 
modernized  somewhat,  what  with  electric  lighting  and 
telephones,  shoe,  soap,  candle,  chocolate  factories,  etc. 
But  her  glory  is  irrevocably  past — she  is  a  worsted 
rival  of  Barranquilla  for  commercial  supremacy, 
and  no  different  commercially  from  a  dozen  other 
minor  ports  in  Spanish  America  and  the  West 
Indies.  In  the  last  few  years  she  is  gradually 
rising  from  the  musty  lethargy  and  utter  business 
decadence  into  which  she  had  fallen.  Besides  secur- 
ing, through  the  railroad,  a  large  part  of  the 
Magdalena  River  traffic,  she  obtains  the  trade  from 
the  Sinu  and  Atrato  sections,  but  this  latter  seems 
destined  to  be  ultimately  taken  from  her.  The  total 
imports  in  19 10  were  $3,951,565  (United  Kingdom, 
$1,620,735  ;  United  States,  $1,338,895  ;  Germany, 
$575>i35)  ;  exports,  $4,984,739  ($2,556,289  to  the 
United  States,  $1,230,055  to  the  United  Kingdom, 
$780,920  to  Germany).  In  191  i  imports  were 
$4,335,805    and    exports   $5,927,159. 

Large  parts  of  the  Departments  of  Bolivar  and 
Atlantico  are  vast  plains  gently  sloping  to  the  sea 
or  to  the  Magdalena,  well  populated  and  admirably 
adapted  for  tropical  agriculture  and  cattle  pastures  ; 
on  these  savannahs,  especially  centred  at  Sabanalarga, 
Sincelejo,  a  progressive  town  of  25,000  inhabitants, 
and   Corozal,    large   herds   of   beef -cattle   graze.      In 


190  COLOMBIA 

the  vicinity  of  the  town  of  Carmen,  tobacco  is  grown 
for  export  as  well  as  for  domestic  consumption  ; 
the  climatic  and  soil  conditions  bear  some  resem- 
blance to  those  of  Cuba,  but  little  attempt  has  been 
made  to  improve  the  plant  or  the  methods  of  pick- 
ing and  curing  the  leaf.  In  the  Department  of 
Bolivar,  the  most  notable  industrial  development  is 
the  sugar  central  at  Sincerin,  on  the  Dique,  erected 
and  owned  '  by  native  Colombians,  progressive 
merchants  of  Cartagena,  and  representing  an  invest- 
ment stated  to  be  about  a  million  dollars.  The 
capacity  of  the  mill  and  factory  is  twenty  tons  of 
sugar  a  day,  which  makes  it  the  largest  in  the  whole 
Republic — the  next  in  size  and  importance  being  that 
of  La  Manuelita,  erected  a  few  years  earlier 
at  Palmira,  in  the  Cauca  Valley,  five  tons  a  day, 
owned  by  the  Cauca  Valley  Agricultural  Company  of 
New  York,  which  is  controlled  by  an  American 
family  that  has  been  identified  with  Colombia  for 
over  half  a  century.  The  Sincerin  central  has  the 
advantage  of  being  within  easy  and  cheap  access 
of  the  Atlantic,  and  consequently  exports  a  large 
part  of  its  output  :  La  Manuelita  possesses  a 
superior  climate  and  soil,  but  manufactures  sugar 
only   for   domestic   consumption. 

The  lowlying  cattle  plains  extend  to  and  beyond 
the  Sinu  River,  the  forests  of  whose  upper  course 
have  been  exploited  for  many  years  for  mahogany 
and  other  woods,  in  connection  wherewith  several 
foreign  companies  have  set  up  sawmills.  The  logs 
are  transported  to  the  river  chiefly  by  oxen,  and 
then  embarked  principally  at  the  bay  of  Sispata  for 
the   United    States. 

The  interesting  little  group  of  islands  known  as 
San  Andres  and  Providencia  (St.  Andrews  and 
Providence)   were,   until   the   present  year,   politically 

'  The  legal  title   is   in  a  New  York  corporation,  the  shares  of 
which  are  owned  as  stated  in  the  text. 


THE   COAST   REGIONS  191 

dependent  on  the  Department  of  Bolivar.  They  are 
now  governed  by  a  direct  appointee  from  Bogota. 
Of  great  historical  interest — a  bone  of  contention 
between  Spaniards  and  English  in  early  West  Indian 
days, I  and  a  noted  pirates'  haunt,  they  are  to-day 
almost  forgotten.  By  the  Colombian  Government 
they  have  heretofore  been  completely  abandoned,  and 
it  seems  a  mere  accident  of  good  fortune  that  juris- 
diction has  been  retained  over  these  remote  posses- 
sions. The  population  consists  of  about  5,000, 
nearly  all  blacks  and  mulattoes.  Most  of  them  are 
of  Jamaican  descent,  but  some  on  Providence  Island 
are  generally  supposed  to  be  descended  from  pirates 
and  their  negro  women.  The  curious  thing  about 
these  inhabitants  is  that  the  sole  language  of  nearly 
all  of  them  is  English,  although  they  are  citizens 
of  a  Spanish  nation.  The  predominating  religion 
is  Protestant.  The  sole  source  of  wealth  is  coco -nuts, 
of  which  some  three  to  six  million  are  annually 
exported,  shipped  by  sailing  vessels  to  the  States 
either  direct  or  via  Colon.  The  imports  amount  to 
$60,000  or  $70,000  a  year.  These  islands  deserve 
to  be  better  known  :  the  climate  is  good,  and  San 
Andres  is  one  of  the  prettiest  little  harbours  in  the 
West  Indies — the  channel  is  deep,  save  for  a  bar 
at  the  entrance  which  gives  only  1 5  feet  of  water, 
but  could  be  easily  removed.  The  Colombian 
Government  cherishes  vague  ambitions  of  making 
San  Andres  a  coaling  station  for  vessels  using  the 
Panama   route. 

Following  the  coast  westward  from  Cartagena  we 
next  come  to  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  or  Darien — the  scene 
of  the  illfated  first  attempts  of  the  Spaniards  to 
found   a   colony.      Now,    as   then,   the   insalubrity  of 

'  See  the  State  Papers,  Colonial-West  Indies.  So  far  as  I  am 
aware  no  historian  of  Colombia  has  ever  made  use  of  these  valuable 
sources  of  information,  which  throw  many  an  interesting  sidelight 
on  the  history  of  the  New  Granada  colony. 


192  COLOMBIA 

the  climate  has  deterred  settlers,  but  some  important 
developments  are  to  be  noted.  The  rivers  flowing 
into  and  which  have  formed  the  Gulf  are  the  Leon 
and  the  Atrato.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Leon,  a 
German  Company,  the  Consorcia  Albingia,  is  under- 
taking extensive  dock  and  harbour  improvements  and 
doing  a  little  local  railroad  building  in  connection 
with  banana  plantations.  American  alarmists  fear 
that  banana  cultivation  is  but  a  pretext — that  the 
improvements  at  Puerto  Cesar,  as  the  new  port  is 
called,  are  in  reality  intended  as  the  basis  for  a 
coaling  station  for  the  German  navy,  in  menacing 
proximity  to  the  Panama  Canal.  The  known  back- 
ing of  the  Consorcia  Albingia  by  the  Hamburg 
American  line,  in  which  the  Kaiser  is  reputed  to 
be  a  large  shareholder,  coupled  with  the  interest 
taken  in  the  development  by  the  German  diplo- 
matists in  Colombia,  lend  a  little  colour  to  these 
fearful  suppositions — probably  unfounded,  however — 
for  the  Hamburg  American  line  is  very  naturally 
fostering  rivals  to  its  competitor,  the  United  Fruit 
Company,  and  the  support  that  German  officialdom 
lends  to  commercial  enterprises  is  universal,  and  the 
application  of  such  support  in  this  specific  instance 
is  readily  explainable  without  the  imputation  of 
ulterior    motives. 

The  Atrato  River,  the  northern  gateway  to  the 
Choco,  is  navigable  as  far  as  and  a  little  beyond 
Quibdo,  and  would  be  so  even  for  ocean-going 
steamers  were  it  not  for  the  bars  that  close  its 
mouth  to  all  but  boats  of  the  lightest  draught — 3 
or  4  feet.  Once  past  these  bars  it  attains  at  places 
great  depth,  and  pours  forth  an  enormous  quantity 
of  water,  due  to  the  incessant  rains  of  its  water- 
shed. Its  course  flows  in  such  close  proximity  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean  that  it  was  naturally  one  of  the 
routes  advocated  and  explored  for  an  interoceanic 
canal   before   the    Panama   way   was   finally   decided 


THE   COAST   REGIONS  193 

on.  Several  connections  with  the  Pacific  were  sug- 
gested by  the  Napipi,  by  the  Truando,  and  by  the  San 
Juan  ;  a  legend,  hard  to  kill,  has  it  that  in  the  old 
days  a  Spanish  priest  actually  did  construct  a  canal 
for  canoes,  linking  the  oceans,  between  the  Atrato 
and  San  Juan  across  the  arrastradero  over  the  short 
lowlying  dividing  range.  The  Colombians  still  cling 
to  the  hope  that  soon  the  Atrato  canal  will  be  built, 
to  rival  the  Panama,  but  no  practical  man  can  con- 
sider this  as  any  but  a  forlorn  quixotic  hope,  a 
wild  dream. 

The  mountain  section  in  the  Choc6  district,  when 
better  known  and  opened  to  travel,  seems  destined 
to  become  of  importance  ;  we  have  already  had 
occasion  to  speak  of  its  probable  mineral  wealth  ; 
the  lowlands  are  peculiarly  well  adapted  to  rubber 
cultivation,  which  has  already  been  started,  to  cacao, 
to  bananas,  and  other  fruits  of  the  tierra  caliente  ; 
the  forests  are  exceptionally  rich,  and  the  rivers 
San  Juan  and  Atrato,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  the 
Baudo,  could  furnish  cheap  water  transportation.  It 
cannot  be  denied,  however,  that  some  regions  of 
the  Choco  are  about  as  unhealthy  a  locality  as  can 
be  found  anywhere  in  the  tropics  ;  above  an  altitude 
of  3,500  or  4,000  feet,  however,  with  due  regard 
to  sanitation,  distinctly  healthful  climates  could  be 
had,  but  it  would  still  rain  incessantly  ! 

The  principal  exports  of  the  Choco  besides  the 
precious  metals  are  vegetable  ivory,  rubber,  medi- 
cinal plants,  and  woods.  A  census  taken  in  1909 
gave  the  number  of  planted  trees  in  the  Choco 
territory  as  follows:  Rubber  1,197,728,  cacao 
663,334,  coffee  38,000,  plantains  13,746,897 — 'from 
which  it  will  be  readily  inferred  that  the  plantain 
forms  the  staple  article  of  food.  Of  the  population 
of  80,000,  only  5,000  are  white  :  there  are  a  few 
Indian  tribes,  but  the  Vast  majority  are  the  descen- 
dants of  the  slave  negroes,  who  have  here  found  an 

14 


194  COLOMBIA 

environment  and  an  abundance  of  easy  food  supply 
suitable,  in  spite  of  malaria,  to  their  rapid  increase. 

The  chief  town  of  the  territory  is  Quibdo,  a  clean, 
well-built  town  of  5,000  inhabitants  and  a  centre 
of  considerable  commerce.  A  sawmill  is  in  active 
operation,  and  there  are  three  or  four  other  saw- 
mills, some  steam,  some  water-power,  throughout 
the  Choco,  which  send  a  little  cut  lumber  to  Carta- 
gena, Barranquilla,  or  Buenaventura.  Istmina  and 
Novita  are  the  other  chief  villages  of  the  territory. 

The  Pacific  coast  from  Panama  south  to  Buena- 
ventura offers  little  of  present-day  interest — a  few 
miserable  little  fishing  or  foresters'  villages  alone 
brave  the  almost  continual  rains  and  the  ravaging 
heat  that  beset  this  coast.  There  are  several  bays 
that  afi'ord  fair  anchorage,  but  as  there  are  no  roads 
across  the  Baudo  range  and  only  one  or  two  poor 
ones  across  the  Western  Cordillera,  there  has  been 
no  inducement  to  settlers  ;  but  because  of  its  proxi- 
mity to  the  Panama  Canal  it  is  likely  that  the 
region,  in  spite  of  its  bad  climate,  will  be  developed. 
Its  forests  will  be  sought  for  their  timber,  its  hills 
and  mountains  for  minerals,  and  its  plains  and 
valleys  devoted  perhaps  to  bananas,  rubber,  and 
cacao.  An  outlet  for  the  trade  of  Antioquia  could 
readily  be  furnished  by  a  road  that  has  been  talked 
of  from  Medellin  across  the  mountain  ranges  to  the 
Pacific  at  Cupica  :  in  a  bee-line  the  distance  is 
only  about   a  hundred  miles. 

The  prospects,  however,  are  not  particularly  invit- 
ing for  either  timbering  or  agricultural  enterprises. 
The  one  or  two  persons  who  have  investigated  the 
coast  with  a  view  to  its  business  possibilities  have 
returned  with  more  malaria  than  enthusiasm  about 
opportunities.  As  a  rule,  there  is  but  a  very  narrow 
strip  between  the  mangrove  swamps  along  the  coast 
and  the  mountains  that  would  be  suitable  for  agri- 
culture or  for  timbering. 


^       Sltt*^;  C ' 


CHUCU    INDIAN. 


CHOCO   NEGRO. 


To  i'ace  p.  194. 


THE   COAST   REGIONS  195 

Buenaventura,  the  first  port  of  call  for  steamers 
south  of  Panama,  from  which  it  is  distant  360  miles, 
derives  its  chief  importance  from  being  the  outlet 
for  the  Cauca  section.  It  possesses  the  advantage 
of  an  excellent  harbour,  the  most  beautiful  of  any 
on  the  whole  Pacific  coast.  Lest  I  be  deemed  pre- 
judiced, let  me  quote  the  noted  geographer.  Colonel 
Church  :  I  "I  have  visited  many  of  the  ports  of 
the  Pacific  coast  (of  America),  and  this  one  I  find 
the  most  beautiful  of  them.  It  is  easy  of  access 
from  the  sea,  spacious,  and  affords  ample  protection 
and  accommodation  for  ships  of  large  tonnage." 
Thus  Nature.  How  man?  Its  present  population  is 
only  3,000  ;  it  lacks  a  dock  ;  its  storehouses  are 
insufficient,  it  affords  scant  accommodation  to 
travellers,  who  usually  therefore  impose  on  the 
hospitality  of  friends  (kind  Samaritans  indeed  are 
the  masters  of  the  railroad  and  the  cable  house  and 
others),  and  besides  is  malignantly  malarial.  Yellow 
fever,  the  plague,  and  typhoid,  it  has  managed  to  keep 
free  of  for  a  number  of  years.  With  the  completion 
of  the  railroad  to  Cali,  the  importance  of  the  port 
will  be  augmented,  and  improvements  will  have  to 
be  made.  But  it  is  unfortunate  for  Colombia  that 
to-day  she  puts  not  her  best  but  her  worst  foot 
forward — the  casual  traveller  on  her  coasts  forms 
a  shabby  opinion  of  the  country  from  her  ports 
and  gets  not  even  an  inkling  of  the  charm  and 
worth   of   the   interior    provinces. 

The  trade  of  Buenaventura  is  considerable  :  its 
exports  in  1910  amounted  to  $1,153,523,  and  im- 
ports $1,278,381,  and  in  191 1,  $1,780,742  and 
^Ij8  53j537  respectively.  The  greater  portion  comes 
from  or  goes  to  the  Cauca  Valley,  but  there  is  some 
traffic,  as  we  have  seen,  with  the  Choco  via  the  San 
Juan  River,  and  some,  but  less,  with  the  nearby  coasts, 
which  produce  ivory-nuts,  rubber,  and  gold-dust. 
'  Geog.  Jour.,  vol.  17  (April,  1901),  p.  350. 


196  COLOMBIA 

About  a  hundred  miles  south  is  the  little  village 
of  Guapi,  which  has  lately  been  made  a  port  of 
entry  ;  but  little  trade  can  be  expected  from  it,  unless 
the  American  company  which  has  recently  started 
a  sawmill  on  a  modest  scale  greatly  develops  its 
business  or  other  new  enterprises  spring  up.  A 
road  across  the  Cordillera  from  Popayan  to  Micay, 
a  bit  north  of  Guapi,  has  been  recently  opened  up, 
but  it  also  is  little  used  so  far.  But  mining  may 
probably  develop  extensively,  as  the  coast  rivers  are 
nearly  all  auriferous  and  some  are  already  worked. 

Tumaco  (population  4,416)  situated  on  a  small 
island  200  miles  south  of  Buenaventura,  is  the  only 
other  Colombian  port  of  call  for  steamers  on  the 
Pacific  :  the  same  Pacific  Steam  Navigation 
Company  boats  that  visit  Buenaventura  touch  here, 
affording  a  poor,  expensive,  and  not  too  regular 
a  service.  It  is  not  such  a  good  harbour  as 
Buenaventura,  as  there  are  some  nasty  sands  and 
shallows  that  should  be  dredged,  and,  moreover,  the 
island  whereon  it  is  situated  is  being  gradually 
encroached  upon  by  the  sea,  and  is  in  some  danger 
of  being  swallowed  up  unless  defensive  measures, 
talked  of  but  not  initiated,  are  taken  :  on  the  other 
hand,  it  has  a  far  less  disagreeable  and  dangerous 
climate  than  its  northern  rival.  Five  small  steamers 
and  some  launches  are  in  service,  via  the  Patia  and 
the  Telembi,  to  Barbacaos,  a  river-port  formerly 
noted  for  its  mines  but  now  in  decadence,  whence 
mule-roads  lead  into  the  interior.  The  principal 
exports  for  191 1  were  "Panama"  hats  (manufac- 
tured in  the  interior),  $521,158  ;  gold,  $381,892  ; 
tagua  (vegetable  ivory),  $358,886  ;  rubber, 
$230,467  ;  and  cacao,  $86,644.  Total  exports, 
Si, 573,340;     imports,   $1,052,494. 

The  Patia  River,  which  we  have  just  mentioned, 
is  remarkable  in  several  respects  :  in  the  first  place, 
it    is    the    only    river    in    South    America    that    has 


THE   COAST  REGIONS  197 

broken  its  way  through  the  Andes  chain  to  flow 
into  the  Pacific  :  it  has  its  source  in  the  giant 
mountain  mass  in  the  southern  portion  of  Colombia, 
where  the  three  great  divisions  of  the  Andes  arei 
united,  and  flows  first  in  the  hollow  between  the 
Central  Cordillera  and  the  Western  Cordillera. 
Through  the  latter  it  has  cleaved  a  remarkable 
passage,  where  in  a  rapidly  rushing  torrent  some- 
times not  more  than  20  feet  wide,  in  the  course 
of  a  few  miles,  it  drops  over  a  thousand  feet,  with 
the  mountains  towering  thousands  of  feet  above  it 
on  each  side.  Upon  emerging  it  receives  tribute 
from  many  streams  and  becomes  a  broad,  winding 
river,  navigable  for  small  steamers,  though  with 
some  difficulty  during  the  dry  season.  It  is  in  the 
basin  of  the  upper  Patia  that  the  hosts  of  locusts 
which  are  a  plague  to  agriculture  in  many  sections 
of ■  Colombia  are  supposed  to  originate.  The  section 
is  exceedingly  fertile  and  rich,  but  has  the  reputa- 
tion, as  has  also  the  lower  course  of  the  river,  of 
being   extremely   unhealthful. 

South  of  Tumaco  to  the  Ecuadorian  frontier 
again  is  of  slight  present-day  importance  except  for 
a  little  mining  and  ivory-nut  and  rubber  exploitation. 
The  dividing  line  with  Ecuador  is  formed  by  the 
River  Mira,  the  course  of  which  is  navigable  for 
launches  for  some  30  miles,  but  occupies  a  heavily 
wooded   and  almost  uninhabited   forest. 

The  population  of  the  Pacific  coast,  like  that  of 
the  Choco,  is  almost  entirely  negro  or  mulatto. 
These  negroes  are  about  the  laziest  lot  in  Colombia  ; 
absolutely  without  ambition,  they  are  content  to  live 
from  day  to  day  with  the  barest  necessities,  although 
the  means  of  obtaining  some  little  wealth  are  at 
hand.  They  are  as  care-free  as  they  are  indolent, 
but  they  are  not  vicious,  and  are  physically  strong, 
skilled  and  daring  boatmen  and  swimmers,  intelli- 
gent though  totally  uneducated,  and  generally  sub- 


198  COLOMBIA 

missive  to  the  authorities.  Their  huts,  devoid  of 
all  furniture,  they  can  put  up  in  half  a  day  and 
are  settled  for  life,  the  girls  marrying — or  rather 
mating — and  bearing  children  at  ten  and  twelve 
years  of  age.  Where  left  without  any  intercourse 
with  the  whites,  as  happens  in  some  remote  forest 
regions,  they  degenerate  into  African  barbarism, 
leading  a  life  as  near  to  that  of  savages  as  can 
well  be  imagined.  Disease  is  allowed  to  spread 
unchecked,  and  their  lot,  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
European,  is  indeed  a  miserable  one,  but  they  are 
happy   in  it. 

The  mulatto  of  the  interior  and  Atlantic  coast 
towns  is  a  far  more  interesting  type,  and  constitutes 
an  important  element  in  Colombian  life.  He  has  often 
gained  great  prominence  in  law,  journalism,  and  in 
politics  and  revolutions,  where  he  is  usually  on  the 
Liberal  side.  To  generalize  :  he  is  lively,  passionate, 
subject  to  alternate  moods  of  indolence  and  activity 
when  enthusiasm  and  his  fertile  imagination  have 
spurred  him  on  ;  he  is  a  poet  of  tropical  exuber- 
ance, but  little  depth  ;  is  extremely  sociable,  artistic, 
and  musical,  voluble,  and  braggart  ;  will  dance  for 
hours  and  days  ;  is  capable  of  arduous  labour  and 
often  displays  great  heroism  ;  takes  readily  to  edu- 
cation and  literature,  and  then  despises  manual 
labour  ;  his  vanity  alone  makes  him  ambitious. 
Physically  he  favours  his  African  ancestors,  but  is 
somewhat  more  attenuated  ;  intellectually  and 
temperamentally,  he  has  assimilated  much  from  his 
Spanish  progenitors.  Truly  an  interesting  type,  pre- 
senting latent  good  qualities,  but  also  possibilities  of 
danger  and  degeneration — a  factor  to  be  seriously 
reckoned  with  in  Colombia.  Whither  will  his 
evolution   lead?     That  no   one  can   predict. 


CHAPTER    XIII 
THE   ANDEAN    REGIONS 

The  Departments  of  the  Central  and  Western 
Cordilleras— Antioquia,  Caldas,  Valle,  Cauca, 
Nariho,    Tolima,    and  Huila. 

It  was  to  the  interior  mountain  and  plateau 
regions,  at  altitudes  where  the  climate  was  more 
like  that  at  home,  that  the  Spaniards  were  invari- 
ably attracted,  no  matter  the  distance  from  the 
coast.  High  up  in  cool  regions  throughout  Spanish 
America,  important  capitals  were  founded— Mexico 
City,  Cartago,  Quito,  Caracas,  La  Paz,  Cuzco — all 
situated  out  of  the  debilitating  reach  of  the  lowland 
heat  and  incidentally  safe  from  the  attack  of  enemies 
besetting  the  coast.  In  Colombia,  too,  the  same 
rule  was  observed  ;  the  Spaniards  sought  out  the 
Andine  regions  to  found  their  homes.  In  the  old 
cities  like  Bogota  and  Popayan,  Benalcazar's  capital, 
the  aristocratic  families  held  sway  and  preserved  the 
purity  of  their  race,  except  occasionally  in  the  earliest 
days,  when,  the  idea  of  the  divinity  of  royalty  extant, 
it  was  considered  no  dishonour  for  a  conquistador 
to  marry  the  daughter  of  an  Indian  chief.  Else- 
where there  has  been  a  strong  admixture  with  the 
Indians.  As  a  consequence  of  the  varying  degrees 
of  intermixture  and  of  the  varying  characteristics, 
on  the  one  hand  of  the  Indian  stocks  thus  absorbed, 
and  on  the  other  of  the  lack  of  homogeneity  among 

199 


200  COLOMBIA 

the  conquering  Spaniards,  themselves  of  various 
races — Celt,  Teuton,  Basque,  Moor,  Jew — and  of  the 
widely  differing  types,  Castillian,  Andalusian  (the 
most  numerous  settlers  in  Colombia),  Galician, 
Catalan,  etc.,  plus  the  different  environments  in 
which  these  complex  blood  mixtures  found  them- 
selves— several  very  distinct  characters  or  types  have 
in  the  course  of  the  centuries  developed  in  Colombia. 
For  though  we  speak  in  the  mass  of  the  Andine 
region,  yet  local  conditions  of  altitude,  climate,  and 
soil  have  differed  greatly — here  life  came  easy,  there 
hard  work  was  necessary  for  subsistence  ;  here  an 
exuberance  of  nature,  there  dry  air  and  an  arid  soil  ; 
here  blazing  sunlight,  there  cold  mists  and  fogs.  By 
the  time  of  the  Independence,  the  types  now  gener- 
ally recognized  among  the  "  white  "  Colombians — the 
term  "  white  "  often  includes  Indian  mixtures — had 
become  fairly  well  fixed.  The  further  evolution  has 
been  complicated  by  the  gradual  dispersion  and  inter- 
marriage of  folk  from  the  various  regions,  and  the 
somewhat  slower  infusion  into  the  "  best  circles  " 
of  drops  of  colour  from  parvenus.  Each  locality 
has  its  own  peculiar  characteristics,  well  worthy  of 
study.  In  the  last  chapter  we  gave  a  fleeting  glimpse 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast.  Now  we  can  only 
find  space  to  mention  the  more  general  types  of 
the  Andeans  —  the  Antioquerio,  the  Caucano,  the 
Tolimense,  the  Bogotano,  etc.,  and  to  review  briefly 
their  habitats. 

The  Antioqueiio  through  the  ages  has  had  to 
work  harder  for  a  living  than  his  brothers  elsewhere  : 
the  soil  was  not  so  fertile  ;  greater  attention  had 
to  be  paid  to  agriculture  ;  mining  required  ingenuity, 
initiative,  and  enterprise  ;  he  has,  therefore,  de- 
veloped into  a  harder-working,  more  practical,  more 
self-asserting,  and  more  persevering  man  than  other 
Colombians.  His  business  ability  and  shrewdness 
as  a  trader  has  been  attributed  to  a  possibly  stronger 


THE  ANDEAN   REGIONS  201 

admixture  in  his  veins  of  Hebrew  blood,  the  beHef 
being  that  among  the  early  settlers  of  Antioquia 
were  numerous  Nuevos  Cristianos — converted  or 
secret  Jews — the  supposition,  for  which  there  is  only 
scanty  historical  evidence, i  being  asserted  to  be  cor- 
roborated by  their  fondness  for  biblical  names  for 
themselves  and  their  towns,  and  by,  a  supposed 
facial  resemblance.  To  this  alleged  descent,  too, 
is  attributed  their  remarkable  prolificness  ;  bachelor- 
dom  is  almost  a  disgrace  :  they  marry  early  and 
run  to  astonishingly  large  families — families  of  ten 
and  twelve  children,  proudly  presented  to  you  by 
their  parents  as  little  servidores  de  Usted,  are  the 
rule  rather  than  the  exception.  One  prominent 
Antioquian  family  of  the  present  day  consists  of 
twenty-nine  brothers  of  the  whole  blood  !  As  a 
consequence  they  emigrate  from  home,  colonize  new 
regions,  and  become  traders  in  old,  and  are  spread- 
ing throughout  Colombia.  From  a  business  stand- 
point they  are  believed  by  many  to  be  the  future 
salvation  of  the  country. 

The  former  Antioquia  is  now  divided  into  two 
departments.  The  northern  has  retained  the  name, 
the  southern  has  been  called  Cal'das,  in  honour  of 
Colombia's  most  distinguished  scientist.  Both  de- 
partments, as  might  be  expected  from  the  character 
of  their  inhabitants,  who  add  an  aversion  to  revolu- 
tions to  their  other  good  qualities,  are  among  the 
most  prosperous  in  Colombia.  In  the  country  dis- 
tracts, mining,  as  we  saw  in  a  previous  chapter, 
is  the  principal  industry,  but  agriculture,  too,  is 
extensively  carried  on  ;  the  Antioquiefios  prefer  to 
be  their  own  masters,  so  small  landholdings  are  the 
rule,  and  this  especially  has  tended  to  the  increase 
of  coffee  production,  for  coffee  is  a  troublesome 
crop  to  pick,  and  outside  labour  on  a  large  scale  in 

'  The  immigration   at  one  time  of  some  two  hundred  converted 
Jewish  families  is  reported. 


202  COLOMBIA 

other  parts  of  the  country  is  often  hard  to  secure. 
The  area  of  the  Department  of  Antioquia,  accord- 
ing to  statistics  published  for  the  year  1907,  was 
6,772,744  hectares,  of  which  4,111,322  were 
Government  lands  (chiefly  to  the  north  and  west), 
^>733, 095  forest  lands,  privately  owned,  and  928,327 
hectares — over  two  million  acres — were  under  cultiva- 
tion. Of  these,  600,238  hectares  were  in  pasture, 
178,599  in  maize,  35,369  in  fr'ijoles  (beans), 
33,268  in  sugar-cane,  26,820  in  coffee,  21,969  in 
plantains,  21,955  i^^  yucca,  and  the  rest  in  rice, 
wheat,   potatoes,   barley,   etc. 

Planted  on  these  two  firm  legs,  farming  and 
mining,  commerce  naturally  thrives.  But  the 
political  capital  of  Antioquia,  Medellin,  is  not 
only  the  most  important  trading  centre  in  Colombia, 
but  is  also  noteworthy  for  its  manufactures.  New 
industries  are  constantly  springing  up  ;  at  the  time 
of  writing,  eleven  new  factories  are  being  erected. 
The  cotton  and  cloth  mills — two,  equipped  with  all 
modern  machinery,  are  especially  important — have 
been  remarkably  successful,  and  are  turning  out  yam, 
drills,  ducks,  prints,  cloths,  shirts,  underclothing, 
stockings  of  a  quality  to  compete  with  the  imported. 
There  are  shoe  factories,  ice  and  electric  plants,  soap, 
candle,  chocolate  manufactures,  glass  and  bottling 
works,  breweries,  iron  and  steel  works,  etc.  The 
population  is  not  quite  70,000,  but  its  wealth  is  out 
of  all  proportion  to  the  number  of  inhabitants.  There 
are  few,  if  any,  cities  of  its  size  in  the  whole  of  South 
America  that  possess  the  wealth  that  Medellin  does. 
Many  of  its  business  men  have  amassed  fortunes,  and 
handsome  business  blocks  and  elegant  residences 
adorn  the  city,  which  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of 
4,600  feet  on  the  banks  of  a  small  stream  in  a 
picturesque  valley.  The  mining  industry  of  the  sur- 
rounding region  naturally  leaves  its  strong  mark  on 
the   capital  ;     there   are   assay   offices   and   chemical 


THE  ANDEAN   REGIONS  203 

laboratories  (rarely  found  in  Colombia),  a  school 
of  mines,  a  museum,  and  a  good  public  library. 
Recreation  is  provided  by  two  theatres  and  a  bull- 
ring which  can  accommodate  5,000  spectators.  Edu- 
cation is  well  looked  after  :  there  are  52  primary 
schools,  a  number  of  secondary  schools,  a  normal 
school  with  over  600  pupils,  and  the  University. 
After  Medellin,  the  most  important  city  in  the 
department  is  Sonson  (population  28,000,  altitude 
8,200  feet),  healthily  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  good 
cattle,  coffee,  and  mining  region,  and  commercially 
very  prosperous. 

Manizales  (population  33,251,  altitude  6,400  feet), 
the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Caldas,  is  not  so 
important  as  Medellin,  but  is  advancing  even  more 
rapidly.  It  is  a  very  recent  town  ;  the  first  settle- 
ment was  in  1847,  and  it  is  only  within  the  last 
thirty  years  that  it  has  been  attaining  importance. 
Next  to  mining,  cattle  raising  is  of  prime  importance 
in  the  department,  Pereira  being  the  chief  cattle 
mart.  Statistics  for  the  year  191  i  give  the  number 
of  head  of  live-stock  in  the  department  as  347,742, 
valued  at  $5,804,419  :  asses  459,  goats  2,041, 
horses  41,700,  pigs  76,323,  sheep  10,551,  mules 
12,862,  beef -cattle  168,485  head.  In  some  of  the 
villages  Panama  hats  are  manufactured  on  quite  an 
extensive  scale.  Coffee  cultivation  is  being  rapidly 
increased,  especially  in  the  Quindio,  where  towns 
like  Armenia  are  springing  up  almost  with  the 
rapidity  of  those  of  the  Canadian  North-west.  The 
coffee  exports  of  the  department  are  already  more 
than  150,000  bags  a  year,  and  the  number  of  trees 
is  officially  given  as  over  6,600,000,  of  which  over 
5,000,000  are  full-grown.  Considerable  tobacco  is 
also  raised. 

To  the  south  is  the  territory  of  the  former  State 
of  the  Cauca,  now  split  up  into  the  three  departments 
El  Valle  (the  Valley),  Cauca,  and  Naririo. 


204  COLOMBIA 

Such  is  the  fame  of  the  Cauca  Valley  that  it  was 
long  known  throughout  Colombia  simply  as  the 
valley,  and  that  is  now  its  legal  name.  It  is  the 
valley  par  excellence.  The  name  is  used  to  designate 
especially  that  stretch,  about  15  to  25  miles  wide  and 
150  miles  long,  where  the  Cauca  River  has  formed  a 
gently  sloping  plain,  at  an  altitude  of  3,000  to 
3,500  feet  above  sea-level,  between  the  Central  and 
the  Western  Cordilleras.  A  little  north  of  Cartago 
and  a  little  south  of  La  Bolsa,  the  two  ranges  hem 
it  in.  The  Cauca  is  one  of  the  real  garden  spots 
of  the  world.  No  pen  can  describe  the  beauty  of 
the  broad  smiling  valley,  as  seen  from  favourable 
points  on  either  range,  with  its  broad  green  pastures, 
yellow  fields  of  sugar-cane,  dark  woodlands,  its 
towns  nestling  at  the  foothills,  the  Cauca  River  in 
the  midst,  silvered  by  the  reflected  sun,  and,  looking 
across,  the  lomas  of  the  rapidly  ascending  foothills, 
with  cameo-cut  country  houses,  topped  by  the  dense 
forests  of  the  upper  reaches  of  the  mountains,  rising 
to  majestic  heights.  From  some  places  in  the 
western  range  will  be  seen  the  snow-clad  Huila  in 
icy  contrast  to  the  blazing  sun  shining  on  the 
luxuriant  tropic  vegetation  beneath. 

But  the  beauty  of  the  valley  is  more  than  skin- 
deep.  Its  cattle  pastures  are  abundant,  and  furnish 
the  principal  industry  at  the  present  time  ;  but  with 
the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  and  the  completion 
within  the  coming  year  '  of  the  short  railroad  from 
the  coast  (Buenaventura)  and  its  prolongation  north 
and  south  through  the  valley,  it  will  probably  not 
be  many  years  before  land  in  the  Cauca  becomes  too 
valuable  for  cattle.  Where  plantains  can  attain  a 
length  of  over  2  feet  and  a  bunch  of  bananas 
a  weight  of  200  pounds  ;  where  cacao,  with 
no  attention  to  proper  cultivation,  is  grown  that 
commands  prices  in  the  foreign  markets  15  to  20 
'  See  note  p.  108. 


\IK\V    IKiiM    A    LdlNTKY    HuUSK    BALCONY,    CAUCA    VALLKY. 


THE   BALCONY   (LA   MANUELITA) 


To  face  p.  204. 


THE   ANDEAN   REGIONS  205 

per  cent,  higher  than  the  Ecuadorian,  African,  or 
Brazihan  product  ;  where  sugar  plantations  yield  for 
three  and  four  generations  without  replanting  or 
fertilizing,  and  the  cane  is  ground  the  whole  year 
round — given  cheaper  transportation,  it  takes  no 
prophet  to  drive  the  cows  from  the  pastures.  Although 
there  is  already  a  population  of  200,000  in  the 
valley  and  its  appurtenant  hills,  and  many  valuable 
holdings  of  cattle  ranches,  cocoa  and  coffee  planta- 
tions and  sugar  estates,  yet  it  can  be  safely  stated 
that  the  Cauca  is  still  only  in  its  infancy.  To  say 
nothing  of  its  possibilities  for  delicious  tropical  fruits, 
and  for  rubber  and  cocoa — for  both  of  which  the 
humid  banks  of  the  Cauca  River  are  adapted — there 
is  enough  suitable  land  in  the  valley  to  produce 
at  least  200,000  tons  of  sugar  a  year.  If  one  can 
venture  on  a  prediction,  the  one  place  in  the  world 
which  will  benefit  the  most  by  the  Panama  Canal 
is  the  Cauca  Valley.  But  perhaps  the  writer  is 
unduly  prejudiced  in  its  favour. 

Of  its  present  farming,  no  statistics  for  the  whole 
valley  are  at  hand,  but  for  the  north-eastern  part, 
which  for  a  short  time  constituted  a  separate 
department,  Buga,  a  census  of  1908  gave  467,817 
head  of  live-stock,  2,719,660  cacao-trees,  1,783,500 
coffee-trees,  1,446,470  tobacco  plants,  12,969,000 
banana  and  plantain  trees,  1 1,045,000  matas  of 
sugar-cane,  and  63,600  acres  of  made  pasture 
land. 

The  only  drawback  is  the  character  of  the  labour  ; 
the  lower  classes  are  largely  negro.  Intelligent? 
Yes  ;  but,  as  elsewhere,  inclined  to  laziness.  The 
upper  class  Caucano  has  many  charming  qualities — 
an  openhanded  hospitality,  high  social  and  intellectual 
attainments — but  he  has  not  in  general  heretofore 
shown  the  sturdy  perseverance  and  practical  turn 
of  mind  of  his  little-liked  neighbour,  the  Antioquefio, 
who  is  invading  his  territory  ;    he  is  less  frugal  and 


20G  COLOMBIA 

more  easily  turned  astray  from  business  by  the  lure 
of  literature — we  are  all  poets  in  the  Cauca — and 
by  the  ambition  to  rule.  The  Cauca  has  produced 
more  than  her  share  of  Colombia's  distinguished 
statesmen  and  men  of  letters.  In  politics  the 
Caucano  is  a  leader  to  be  loved  but  a  foe  to  be 
feared.  A  politician  from  another  section,  em- 
bittered by  the  tactics  of  a  Caucano  adversary,  once 
narrated  the  following  legend  :  "  The  Almighty, 
after  He  had  created  the  rest  of  the  world,  pro- 
duced as  His  chef-cV ceuvre  the  Cauca  Valley.  Ensued 
the  struggle  with  Lucifer,  who,  victorious,  im- 
posed, as  an  essential  condition  to  a  treaty  of  peace, 
the  cession  of  the  Cauca  Valley.  Reluctantly,  this 
was  at  last  consented  to.  '  And  now  what  are  you 
going  to  do  with  the  Masterpiece  of  Creation?  ' 
Lucifer  was  asked,  and  responded,  '  I  will  people  it 
with  people   I   would  not  have  in  Hell.' 

Contrary  to  what  we  find  in  Antioquia,  large 
landed  estates  are  the  rule.  But  they  have  mostly 
passed  from  the  hands  of  the  old  aristocratic  families, 
who  have  either  removed  to  Bogota  or  have  become 
impoverished.  A  few,  however,  still  inhabit  the 
Cauca  at  Cali  (population  25,000),  the  "  Sultana 
of  the  valley,"  undoubtedly  destined  to  increase  its 
lead  as  a  commercial  emporium  ;  at  agricultural 
centres  like  Palmira,  Buga,  Tulua,  and  Santander, 
and  especially  on  the  fertile  tableland  of  Popayan, 
to  the  south.  Popayan,  one  of  the  famous  Spanish 
towns  where  old  aristocratic  traditions  of  culture 
have  been  preserved,  and  where  is  spoken  perhaps 
the  best  Spanish  in  the  New  World,  is  the  capital 
of  the  Department  of  Cauca.  It  is  an  interesting 
town,  but  commercially  moribund.  Situated  at  an 
altitude  of  5,900  feet,  it  is  blessed  with  a  perpetually 
cold  and  healthy  spring  climate,  but  troubled  by 
violent  electrical  storms  and  frequent  earthquakes, 
due  to  being  in  the  heart  of  a  volcanic  region.     Of 


THE   ANDEAN  REGIONS  207 

the  nearby  volcanoes,  Sotara  (4,850  metres)  is 
apparently  extinct.  Some  1 7  miles  east  of 
the  town  is  Purace  (4,908  metres),  with  a  crest 
of  snow  beautiful  against  the  flames  and  multi- 
coloured smoke-clouds  it  emits.  On  its  flanks, 
strange  to  say,  are  rich,  broad  cattle  pastures.  Down 
its  north-westerly  slope  flows  the  curious  River 
Vinagre,  described  by  Boussingault,  which  derives 
its  name  from  the  acidity  of  its  waters,  surcharged 
with  sulphuric  acid. 

A  few  days'  journey  by  mule  to  the  south  is  the 
capital  of  the  mountainous  Department  of  Narifio,  the 
city  of  Pasto  (population  16,000,  altitude  8,600  feet). 
Situated  on  this  cold  deviated  plateau,  it  naturally  has 
a  healthful  climate,  and  is  rapidly  increasing  in 
wealth  and  importance  in  spite  of  its  isolation.  The 
Pastuso  Indians,  who  form  the  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion (negroes  are  almost  never  found  in  the  high- 
lands in  Colombia),  are  a  hardworking  lot  :  they 
raise  in  considerable  quantity  wheat  and  barley,  and 
are  skilled  besides  in  divers  home  industries,  making 
Panama  hats  in  abundance,  and  pottery,  wooden 
ornaments,  and  utensils  tastefully  coloured  with  the 
celebrated  Pasto  varnish,  and  weaving  cotton  and 
woollen  cloth.  At  still  higher  altitudes  are  the  towns 
of  Tuquerres  and  Ipiales,  both  at  an  elevation  of 
over  10,000  feet  above  the  sea  ;  the  latter  is  the 
frontier  town  and  customs  entry  from  Ecuador.  The 
Indians  here  are  similar  to  their  neighbours  of 
northern  Ecuador,  hardworking  and  industrious,  but 
retrograde  to  a  degree  of  fanaticism.  All  speak 
Spanish,  and  are  consequently  classed  as  "  civilized," 
though  possessing   little  education. 

On  the  other  or  eastern  side  of  the  Central  Cor- 
dillera lie  the  Departments  of  Tolima  and  of  Huila, 
carved  from  the  former  State  or  Department  of 
Tolima.  Huila,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  moun- 
tain, is  but  sparsely  settled,  although  there  is  much 


208  COLOMBIA 

good  agricultural  and  pasture  land.  The  low-lying 
regions  about  the  Magdalena  River  are  hot  and 
malarial  ;  hook-worm  and  anaemia  are  prevalent,  and 
a  peculiar  skin  disease,  found  also  in  other  parts  of 
Colombia,  ugly  but  not  dangerous,  called  "  carate," 
which  leaves  whitened  and  discoloured  blotches  on 
the  face  and  neck,  is  common,  especially  among 
workers  in  the  cacao  plantations.  The  higher  climes 
on  the  flanks  of  the  Cordillera  are  healthful,  but  little 
inhabited  :  as  we  get  farther  south,  the  population 
becomes  sparser  and  sparser  ;  means  of  communica- 
tion are  very  scanty  and  trade  becomes  almost  nil. 
This  southerly  region  is,  however,  of  intense  interest 
to  the  archaeologist,  for  near  the  little  village  of 
San  Agustin  some  remarkable  remains  of  an  ancient 
civilization  have  been  discovered.  General  Codazzi 
in  1857,  while  engaged  on  his  Government  survey, 
first  ran  across  them,  but  although  they  have  since 
been  visited  by  a  few  scientists,  little  light  has  been 
thrown  on  the  origin  of  the  gigantic  statues,  massive 
stone  coffins,  artificial  mounds,  and  remarkable 
chambers  with  sculptured  stone  door  jambs  that 
have  been  found.  The  remains  were  recently  visited 
by  Dr.  Stoepel,  on  behalf  of  the  Berlin  Museum, 
who  presented  his  findings  to  the  191 2  Congress  of 
Americanists.  Further  investigations,  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe,  will  prove  fruitful  and  Avill  reveal 
many  more  interesting  vestiges  of  the  cultured  race 
that  must  have  dwelt  here. 

An  interesting  description  of  the  region  of  the 
head-waters  of  the  Magdalena  is  given  in  an  un- 
published report  by  Mr.  A.  A.  Allen  to  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History  : 

"  We  left  the  valley  (Las  Papas)  April  3,  1912,  on  the  trail  for 
San  Agustin.  The  trail  leads  practically  NE.  upward,  steeply  in 
places,  and  very  rocky  until  the  top  of  the  Paramo  is  reached  at 
12,300  feet.  It  was  extremely  rainy  and  foggy,  so  that  one  could  not 
see  far,  but  it  was  very  noticeable  that  there  was  no  sharp  line  to  tree 


77°  West  of  6i 


CENTRAL  WESTERN  COLOMBIA. 


Drawn,  under  the  supervision  of  Frank  M.  Chapman,  chiefly  from  maps  of  Robert  Blake  White.     Reproduced 
by  permission  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History. 


To  face  p.  208. 


THE  ANDEAN   REGIONS  209 

growth  as  at  San  Isabel.  One  looks  down  into  narrow  valleys 
covered  with  Paramo  vegetation,  while  all  about  the  mountains  are 
heavily  forested,  in  places  probably  up  to  13,000  feet.  But  even  on 
these  wooded  slopes  the  forest  is  not  continuous,  but  here  and  there 
occur  patches  of  the  Paramo  vegetation  scattered  about  rather 
miscellaneously — their  presence  perhaps  determined  by  the  nature 
of  the  soil  rather  than  the  altitude  alone.  Most  of  these  '  Paramo 
valleys '  appear  to  me  to  be  the  basins  of  ancient  lakes  which  had 
in  some  way  broken  through  their  barriers  and  left  behind  them 
only  those  broad  fiat-bottomed  beds  of  loose  muck  which  have 
gradually  been  covered  over  with  the  growth  of  coarse  sedges 
except  where  the  small  stream  still  meanders.  Just  below  timber- 
line  the  forest  is  extremely  dense,  with  a  great  deal  of  moss, 
caladiums,  etc.,  and  with  a  tree  of  the  banyan  type  quite  prevalent. 
The  fringe  of  stunted  trees  is  quite  restricted.  The  trail  continues 
along  a  ridge  for  a  short  distance,  judged  by  the  low  growth,  and  then 
begins  a  steady  descent.  At  11,000  feet  a  fair-sized  mountain  stream 
is  crossed,  and  then  the  trail  follows  approximately  down  its  valley  — 
extremely  rocky  and  stony  in  parts  and  ever  very  wet  with  a  stream 
flowing  down  it.  When  a  level  stretch  is  reached,  it  is  generally 
very  marshy,  making  progress  difficult.  In  places  great  cliffs  rise 
perpendicularly  for  hundreds  of  feet  at  either  side  of  the  valley,  and 
waterfalls  tumble  interrupted  from  the  top  to  the  river  below — at 
least  a  thousand  feet.  These  falls  could  be  seen,  however,  only  at 
intervals  when  the  fog  parted  for  an  instant.  At  other  times  one 
could  not  see  50  feet  in  advance.  Thus  the  trail  descends  to 
Santa  Marta,  at  an  altitude  of  g,ooo  feet.  Santa  Marta  is  a  rather 
large  but  unfinished  building,  used  as  a  general  posada  by  all  the 
Indian  packers.  It  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  amphitheatre  of  perhaps 
a  half  mile  in  diameter,  whose  perpendicular  walls  are  pierced  only 
by  the  ingress  and  egress  of  the  stream  (and  trail).  The  river  even 
here  is  a  swollen  torrent,  and  called  the  Magdalena  by  the  Indians. 
All  about  is  the  luxuriant  moss  forest.  It  would  make  an  ideal 
collecting  spot,  and  I  hope  Miller  got  back  to  it. 

"A  long  day's  trip  over  a  trail  which  is  comparable  only  with  that 
between  Cartago  and  Novita  brings  one  to  Los  Monos,  which  is 
nothing  but  a  small  lean-to  situated  at  the  edge  of  a  small  clearing. 
Three  hours  farther,  ascending  and  descending  brings  one  to  Peha 
Seco,  a  niche  in  a  perpendicular  cliff  undercut  so  as  to  be  perfectly 
dry,  and  no  shelter  of  any  kind  has  been  erected  or  is  necessary. 
A  few  hundred  feet  below,  almost  straight  down,  rushes  the 
Magdalena,  here  a  mad  torrent.  The  altitude  is  but  7,000  feet,  but 
the  moss  forest  extends  uninterrupted  down  its  course  and  covers 
its  sides — wonderful  country  !  I  was  sorry  not  to  be  in  a  better 
position  to  appreciate  it." 

15 


210  COLOMBIA 

The  Department  of  Huila,  due  largely  to  its  isola- 
tion and  to  the  strong  preponderance  of  Indian  blood 
in  its  population,  is  as  backward  perhaps  as  any  in 
the  whole  Republic.  There  is  not  a  single  bank 
and  not  a  single  cart-road  in  the  department,  and 
but  few  mule-roads  connect  it  with  other  depart- 
ments ;  only  nine  periodicals  of  very  limited  circula- 
tion are  published  ;  there  is  no  electric  plant,  and  we 
might  go  on  indefinitely  enumerating  what  there  is 
not.  No  particular  improvement  can  be  looked  for 
until  a  railroad  is  built  up  the  valley  of  the  Magda- 
lena — something  for  the  distant  future.  As  a  com- 
mercial highway,  the  river  itself,  the  most  important 
artery  of  communication,  although  only  navigable 
for  steamers  at ,  certain  seasons,  is  not  susceptible 
of  much  improvement.  The  principal  exports  are 
coffee,  rubber,  brought  from  the  Amazon  regions, 
and  Panama  hats,  called  "  Suazas,"  from  the  former 
name  of  the  town  where  they  are  chiefly  made  ;  the 
production  of  cacao,  formerly  important,  has  greatly 
diminished,  owing  to  a  blight  that  has  attacked  the 
trees  and  against  which  no  protective  measures  have 
been  taken.  The  capital,  Neiva  (population  8,300, 
altitude  1,500  feet),  as  the  head  of  navigation  and 
the  principal  town  on  the  road  from  Popayan  to 
Bogota,  has  considerable  importance  as  a  commercial 
centre. 

The  Department  of  Tolima  to  the  north  is  of 
greater  present-day  importance  ;  considerable  mining 
development  has  taken  place,  especially  at  Mariquita, 
Frias,  Fresno,  and  Anaime  ;  at  Chaparral,  a  little 
asphalt  has  been  taken  out.  The  Dorada  Railway, 
the  Magdalena  River,  and  the  important  mule-road 
across  the  Quindio,  are  in  its  territory  and  add  to 
its  commerce  ;  the  upper  slopes  of  the  Central  Cor- 
dillera are  cool,  healthful,  and  in  many  places  fertile, 
and  are  being  rapidly  populated  by  Antioqueiios,  who 
dedicate  themselves  chiefly  to  coff'ee  and  cattle,  and 


THE   ANDEAN  REGIONS  211 

some  of  whose  towns,  like  Marulanda  and  Man- 
zanares,  are  growing  rapidly.  Ibague,  the  capital 
(altitude  1,299  metres,  population  24,566),  is  a 
pleasantly  situated  and  well-laid-out  town  of  consider- 
able commercial  importance.  The  Magdalena  llanos 
are  given  over  to  cattle,  some  of  the  ranches  sus- 
taining thousands  of  head,  and  a  little  cacao,  of  good 
quality,  and  sugar-cane  are  also  raised.  The  tobacco 
of  Ambalema  at  one  time  had  a  reputation  almost 
superior  to  that  of  Havana,  and  the  town  still  shows 
evidence  of  the  former  wealth  which  it  possessed 
in  the  good  old  tobacco  days  ;  a  fairly  good 
quality  of  cigars  is  still  produced,,  chiefly  for 
Colombian  consumption,  though  some  are  sent  to 
Germany.  There  are  three  large  tobacco  and  cigar 
factories,  employing  chiefly  ill-paid  women  workers  ; 
the  largest  is  owned  by  an  English  family.  Statistics 
for  1908  gave  the  number  of  head  of  live-stock  in  the 
department  as  423,627,  valued  at  $5,183,975. 

This  region  (Honda,  Ambalema,  Ibague)  is  in  the 
heart  of  Colombia  and  inevitably  bound  to  acquire 
a  considerable  increment  of  wealth  with  the  railroad 
extensions  that  are  now  being  carried  forward.  The 
Tolimense  of  the  hills  is  hardy  and  of  good  physique, 
makes  an  excellent  vaquero  or  cowboy,  but  has  not 
the  aptitude  for  business  and  is  not  as  enterprising 
as  the  Antioqueno,  who  is  becoming  the  dominant 
factor  in  the  commercial  population. 


CHAPTER    XrV 

THE   ANDEAN    REGIONS— {cotititnied) 

The  Departments  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera — Boyacd, 
Cundinamarca,  Santander,  and  Norte  de 
Santander. 

The  Departments  of  Boyaca,  Santander,  Norte  de 
Santander,  and  Cundinamarca  occupy  the  extensive 
tablelands  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  its  cross  ranges 
and  flanks  down  to  the  Magdalena  River  on  the 
west  and  to  the  llanos  and  selvas  of  the  Orinoco 
and  Amazon  watershed  on  the  east.  Of  these  four 
departments,  the  two  Santanders,  extremely  moun- 
tainous, are  but  sparsely  inhabited  ;  Boyaca  is,  com- 
paratively speaking,  densely  populated,  largely  by 
those  of  Indian  blood,  and  Cundinamarca,  the  seat 
of  the  capital  of  the  Republic,  is  at  once  the  mast 
thickly  settled  and  the  best  developed  region  of 
Colombia. 

The  capital  and  chief  city  of  the  Department  of 
North  Santander  is  San  Jose  de  Cucuta.  Many 
afflictions  have  visited  the  town  :  it  has  suffered 
severely  from  earthquakes— one  in  1875  almost 
totally  destroyed  it  ;  situated  on  a  plain  at  an  alti- 
tude of  only  1,000  feet,  and  shut  in  by  surround- 
ing hills,  it  is  hot  and  unhealthy,  and  frequent 
epidemics  of  yellow  fever  have  raged.  Nevertheless, 
it    has    survived    and    progressed  :     the    surrounding 

country,    rich   in   coffee   plantations,    makes    the   city 

212 


THE   ANDEAN   REGIONS  213 

an  important  commercial  centre,  although  its  popula- 
tion  is   only    1 6,000.1 

Built  up  after  the  earthquake  with  wide,  tree- 
fringed  streets,  in  pleasing  contrast  to  the  usual 
narrow  streets  of  the  small  Spanish  American  towns, 
electric  light,  a  steam  tramway,  telephone  service, 
a  theatre,  covered  markets  and  slaughter-house, 
several  notable  charitable  institutions,  including  an 
orphan  asylum  and  poor-house  founded  by  the  widow 
of  a  Danish  resident,  complete  the  modern  equipment 
of  Cucuta. 

The  cofifee  and  other  exports  find  their  way  out 
by  railroad  to  the  River  Zulia,  thence  by  steamers 
to  Maracaibo,  a  Venezuelan  port,  where  German 
houses  are  firmly  established,  which  control  the 
inland  navigation  companies.  From  the  course  of 
trade,  it  is  natural  that  the  town,  together  with  the 
vicinity  it  supplies,  finds  itself  somewhat  isolated 
from  the  rest  of  Colombia,  with  which  it  has  practic- 
ally no  commercial  intercourse.  A  project  is  now 
on  foot,  the  reader  will  recall,  to  connect  Ciicuta  by 
rail  with  the  lower  Magdalena  River.  This  would  un- 
doubtedly be  a  great  step  in  advance.  In  fact, 
it  is  almost  a  political  necessity,  as  thereby  the 
trade  of  this  north-eastern  region  of  Colombia  would 
be  liberated  from  paying  tribute  to  Venezuela,  which 
has  frequently  interposed  excessive  and  unjust  restric- 

'  The  imports  in  1909  were  2,216,368  kilos,  valued  at  $475,555— 
$140,875  from  Germany  (textiles,  $84,444),  $141,118  from  the  United 
States  (textiles,  $70,221,  foodstuffs,  $24,767);  $71,145  from  Great 
Britain  (textiles,'  $57,175),  $95,451  from  Venezuela  (salt,  $52,864). 
Exports  in  1909  were  :  coffee,  9,271,381  kilos,  valued  at  $1,189,915  ; 
hides,  114,243,  valued  $21,458,  rubber,  $80.  In  1910,  imports 
$518,272  ;  exports,  $861,918.  In  1911,  exports  (Puerto  Villamizar)  : 
coffee,  7,960,255  kilos ;  hides,  90,715  kilos.  Imports:  salt,  1,318,155 
kilos  ;  other  merchandise,  2,270,525  kilos.  All  figures  are  in  silver 
money.  Nearly  half  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the  city  is  in  the  hands 
of  four  German  firms.  There  are  no  English  or  American  firms 
established  here. 


214  COLOMBIA 

tions  :  the  navigation  of  the  Zulia  River  and  the 
Orinoco,  which  further  to  the  south  serves  as  the 
boundary  between  Venezuela  and  Colombia,  has  often 
been  the  subject  of  international  controversy  between 
the  two  nations,  which  should  be,  but  are  not,  on  the 
friendliest    terms. 

There  are  only  two  other  towns  of  any  size  in 
North  Santander — Ocana  (population  17,000,  alti- 
tude 3,600  feet)  and  Pamplona  (population  14,790, 
altitude  7,100  feet),  the  latter  founded  in  1549  by 
the  conquistador  Pedro  de  Ursua,  one  of  the  famous 
seekers  after  El  Dorado.  Both  towns  are  in  the 
centre  of  good  coffee  regions  :  cacao  and  hats  are 
also  exported.  Pamplona's  trade  flows  through 
Cucuta,  that  of  Ocana  by  the  Magdalena.  A  move- 
ment is  now  under  way  to  build  a  wagon-road  from 
Ocana  to  its  river  port,  utilizing  a  section  already 
constructed,  and  run  automobiles  and  Renard  traction 
engines  on  it. 

Bucaramanga  (altitude  2,850  feet,  population 
20,000),  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Santander, 
is  a  few  days'  ride  from  Ocana  and  Cucuta,  but  it 
has  its  own  independent  outlets,  at  present  via  the 
Lebrija  and  Sogamoso  Rivers,  tributaries  of  the 
Magdalena,  to  be  replaced  in  the  future,  it  is  hoped, 
by  the  Puerto  Wilches  railroad  now  under  construc- 
tion. It,  too,  is  a  very  important  coffee  centre,  and 
the  town  is  fairly  progressive,  its  streets  and  little 
parks  well  kept,   and  lighted  by  electricity. 

The  character  of  the  Santanderenos  is  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  the  Antioqueiios  :  they  are  in- 
defatigable workers  and  economical,  and  readily 
colonize  new  regions,  though  not  augmenting  very 
rapidly  in  number.  Their  individualism  is  shown 
by  the  preponderance  of  small  landholdings,  which 
accounts  for  the  importance  of  the  coffee  industry. 
Physically  they  are  of  fine  appearance  ;  there  has 
been   little  infusion  of  negro  blood,   except  near  the 


THE   ANDEAN   REGIONS  215 

Magdalena  River  ;  and  the  upper  classes  have  pre- 
served, at  least  it  has  so  appeared  to  me,  more  of 
Castilian  fairness  of  skin  and  length  of  limb  than 
other   Colombians. 

The  low-lying  parts  of  the  Department  of  San- 
tander  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Cordillera  down 
to  the  Magdalena  are  but  little  inhabited.  For  the 
most  part  they  are  covered  by  dense  tropical  forest, 
rich  in  valuable  products,  but  little  exploited,  ex- 
ception made  of  the  ivory-nuts  of  the  Sogamoso. 
Certain  parts  of  the  Carare  and  Opon,  small 
tributaries  of  the  Magdalena,  are  still  inhabited  by 
savage  Indians,  whose  hostility  to,  or  rather  fear 
of,  the  whites  has  hindered  even  proper  exploration 
of  this  region  in  the  very  heart  of  Colombia,  though 
the  tribes  are  numerically  unimportant.  A  Jesuit 
missionary  who  recently  undertook  a  voyage  among 
them  states  that  there  are  only  a  few  score  families. 
The  land  they  occupy  is  not  particularly  fertile  nor 
healthful,  so  no  effort  has  been  made  to  deprive  them 
of  it,   or  otherwise  to  civilize  them. 

The  most  densely  populated  parts  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Boyaca  are  the  elevated  plateaux  which, 
while  possessing  no  large  cities,  are  dotted  with 
numbers  of  small  towns  devoted  to  the  agriculture  of 
the  tierra  fria.  Wheat,  barley,  maize,  alfalfa,  and 
potatoes  are  the  principal  crops,  raised  in  important 
quantities  for  local  consumption  and  for  export  to 
the  neighbouring  Department  of  Cundinamarca.  The 
capital  is  the  historic  town  of  Tunja  (population 
8,407,  altitude  8,600),  the  northern  capital  of  the 
Chibcha  rulers  ;  during  the  Spanish  days  it  was 
the  seat  of  important  families  and  many  of  the  old 
buildings  are  still  in  existence.  After  a  period  of 
decadence,  the  town  is  once  again  advancing — it  even 
has  electric  light.  Near  it  is  Chiquinquira  (popula- 
tion 13,000),  famous  for  its  church  and  a  miraculous 
Virgin,   which   attracts   thousands   of   pilgrims.      The 


216  COLOMBTA 

Indians,  who  form  the  bulk  of  the  population  of 
Boyacd,  are  sunk  in  a  fanatical  ignorance,  from 
which  little  effort  is  made  to  arouse  them,  though 
they  are  as  submissive  to  the  priests  to-day  as  they 
were  to  their  Spanish  conquerors.  Educational  facili- 
ties are  lacking — there  are  fewer  schools  in  pro- 
portion to  the  population  than  anywhere  else  in  the 
Republic.  Only  3  per  cent,  of  the  population  attends 
school. 

The  real  estate  of  the  former  Department  of 
Boyacd  (one-half  of  the  present  Department)  was 
valued  on  the  tax  rolls  (1908)  at  $12,548,611  :  its 
mineral  wealth  in  exploitation,  besides  the  Muzo 
emerald  mines,  is  copper  and  marble  on  a  very  small 
scale.  The  latest  statistics  at  hand  (1907)  give  the 
number  of  head  of  live-stock  as  331,056,  valued  at 
$3,328,866  for  the  former  subdivision  of  Boyaca, 
and  531,494  head  for  the  former  subdivision  of 
Santa  Rosa.  Sheep  form  an  important  item  ;  goats, 
too,  rarely  found  in  other  parts  of  Colombia,  are 
numerous.  The  natives  are  expert  in  weaving  wool, 
which  finds  its  way  largely  into  ruanas  (coarse 
mantles,  extensively  worn) — it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  climate  of  the  high  tableland  is  cold.  The 
chief  market  for  the  productions  of  the  department 
is  Bogota,  with  which  city  it  is  now  in  communi- 
cation by  a  good  road,  the  best  in  the  whole 
Republic. 

The  Department  of  Cundinamarca  can  be  con- 
veniently divided  into  two  parts — the  one,  the  plateau 
and  the  mountains  enclosing  it,  the  other,  the  slopes 
of  the  Cordillera  down  to  the  Magdalena  on  one  side 
and  the  Orinoco  watershed  llanos  on  the  other.  It 
embraces,  therefore,  within  close  range,  every  variety 
of  climate  and  soil  to  be  found  in  Colombia — the 
tierra  ardiente,  or  hot  zone,  of  the  Magdalena  Valley, 
the  tierra  calientc,  or  warm  zone,  reaching  to  an 
altitude    of    3,500    feet    or    thereabouts,    the    tierra 


THE   ANDEAN  REGIONS  217 

templada,  or  temperate  zone,  embracing  the  alti- 
tudes from  3,500  to  8,000  feet,  and  the  tierra  frio, 
or  cool  zone,  at  the  higher  altitudes.  The  cold, 
bleak  regions  in  Colombia,  where  vegetation  becomes 
scanty,  dying  off  with  the  frailejon,  a  hardy  shrub, 
before  the  region  of  perpetual  snow  is  reached,  are 
known  as  the  paramos. 

The  best  developed  parts  of  the  hot  and  temperate 
zones    of    Cundinamarca    are    along    the    Magdalena 
Valley  and  the   routes  of  the  Girardot  Railway,   the 
road    to    Cambao    and    the    Honda    trail.       In    the 
warmer   zone  there   are  good   sugar  plantations  :    in 
the  temperate  zone  is  grown  the  coffee  so  favourably 
known  in  the  markets  of  the  world  under  the  name 
of  Bogota  :     it   attains   its   perfection    at   an   altitude 
of  about    5,000  feet,   and  nowhere  else  in  Colombia 
has  such  careful  attention  been  given  to  its  cultiva- 
tion.    The  Sabana  itself,  by  which  name  the  plateau 
of  Bogota  is  known,  is  all  taken  up  wdth  farms  and 
towns — there  is  scarcely  a  foot  of  undeveloped  land. 
The  climate  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  European- 
blooded  animals,  and  the  gentleman-farmer  of  Bogota 
takes  great  pride  in  his  stock.      The  finest  cattle  in 
Colombia,    a   great   many   of   imported   Durham   and 
Hereford  stock,  and  excellent  horses  of  English  and 
Norman   descent    are   bred   here.      This    is    the   only 
section    in    Colombia,    too,    where    dairying    on    any 
extensive  scale  is  carried  on,  and  where  the  general 
level    of    agriculture    has    risen   above    the    primitive. 
The  lands  not  devoted  to  pasture  are  utilized  chiefly 
for  wheat,  barley,   and  potatoes. 

The  live-stock  statistics  of  Cundinamarca  for  1909 
are  given  as  follows  :  beef -cattle,  304,526  head  ; 
horses,  73,067  ;  mules  and  donkeys,  58,851  ;  sheep, 
134,189  ;  goats,  33,848  ;  pigs,  154,920.  The  chief 
agricultural  products  for  the  same  year  were  :  coffee, 
68,900  car  gas ;  i  sugar  and  molasses,  285,079  ; 
'  A  carga  is  a  mule  load,  that  is,  about  250  pounds. 


218  COLOMBIA 

wheat,  176,306;  potatoes,  611,847;  and  barley, 
40,104  cargas.  To  these  figures  must  be  added 
those  of  the  former  Department  of  Zipaquira,  now 
embraced  in  Cundinamarca,  which  for  1908  showed 
235,342  head  of  all  classes  of  live-stock,  valued  at 
$2,653,468,  and  3,394,756  coffee,  2,257,000  banana, 
and  246,200  cacao  trees,  etc.,  and  22,260  hectares 
planted  in  maize,  15,665  in  wheat,  2,966  in  arra- 
cacha,  7,919  in  potatoes,  and  several  thousand 
hectares  in  minor  crops.  To  all  this  agricultural 
wealth  must  be  added  the  fact,  as  we  noted  in  the 
chapter  on  mining,  that  the  mountains  enclosing  the 
Sabana  are  rich  in  salt  and  coal,  besides  iron  and 
other  minerals  on  a  small  scale  not  exploited. 

The  life  of  the  Sabana,  of  course,  revolves  around 
Bogota,  the  national  capital,  where  the  aristocracies 
of  blood,  of  wealth,  and  of  intellect  are  centred. 
Here  is  a  synthesis  of  Colombia  '  :  here  we  find  in 
the  strongest  relief  the  contrasts  that  so  tragically 
mark  the  country.  On  one  street,  lined  with  sub- 
stantial residences,  the  elegant  Bogotano,  wealthy 
and  cultured,  educated  in  foreign  universities,  speak- 
ing three  or  four  languages,  attired  in  silk  hat  and 
frock-coat  of  the  latest  European  cut,  passes  by 
in  his  carriage  and  pair  or  automobile  ;  around  the 
corner  is  a  group  of  miserable,  besotted  Indians  or 
mestizos,  ragged,  shoeless,  half -starved,  none  of 
whom  can  read  or  write,  huddled  together  in  a  reek- 
ing disease-laden  hovel  of  a  dirty  chicheria,  for  sullen 
companionship  over  their  interminable  glasses  of  the 

'  Dr.  M.  D.  Eder,  who  has  read  the  proofs  of  this  book,  writes  me  : 
"  I  cannot  agree  that  it  is  a  synthesis  of  Colombia.  It  is  curiousl}' 
not  typical  of  Colombia.  I  believe  it  is  only  in  Colombia  and 
Spanish-speaking  countries  (and  Southern  Italy)  that  there  is  any 
real  democratic  feeling  ;  that  rich  and  poor  can  e.xist  side  by  side 
meeting  on  equal  terms.  The  form  of  government  is  democratic, 
the  actual  government  despotic,  but  the  people  the  freest  I  have 
ever  known." 


THE  ANDEAN  REGIONS  219 

vile  fermented  chicha.  True,  somewhat  analogous 
pictures  might  be  found  if  we  could  suddenly  juxta- 
pose Whitechapel  and  the  West  End,  Fifth  Avenue 
and  the  New  York  slums,  but  our  Anglo-Saxon  spec- 
tacles, conveniently  opaque  at  home,  are  splendidly 
translucent  near  the  Equator,  and  give  us  the  right 
toi  criticize  and  to  declaim  that  a  century  of 
Republicanism  in  Colombia,  with  its  dictatorships, 
revolutions,  and  Church  oppressions,  has  proved  a 
failure. 

Of  course,  not  all  the  lower  classes  spend  their 
days  in  the  chicherias.  Thousands  are  far  happier 
toiling  in  the  factories  than  are  their  Anglo-Saxon 
fellows.  Bogota  and  its  suburbs  possess  a  goodly 
number  of  factories  :  matches,  plate  glass,  clay- 
tubing,  beer,  flour,  candles  made  here  have  dis- 
lodged their  foreign  competitors.  Many  other 
articles  are  manufactured  which  compete  favourably 
in  price  and  quality  with  imported  goods — glassware, 
cotton  goods,  silks,  linens,  cigarettes,  biscuits,  mineral 
waters,  shoes — though  they  have  not  altogether  re- 
placed the  foreign  articles,  as  the  quantity  manu- 
factured is  insufficient.  The  largest  industrial 
establishment  in  the  city  is  the  Bavaria  brewery, 
employing  300  labourers,  an  up-to-date  concern, 
founded  in  1890,  and  run  naturally  by  a  German. 
Ten  years  ago  its  brew -master  started  a  smaller 
rival  brewery,  which  also  turns  out  very  good  beer. 
The  owner  of  the  Bavaria  is  also  the  head  of  the 
glass-works,  owned  by  a  German  company,  and 
employing  over  200  labourers.  The  other  industrial 
establishments  of  Bogota  are  nearly  all  in  the  hands 
of  Colombians  ;  there  are  several  flourmills — the 
largest  cost  over  $150,000 — and  a  modern  chocolate 
factory,  "Chaves  y  Equitativa,"  representing 
probably  a  larger  investment.  The  ordinary  arts 
and  crafts  are  well  represented,  supplying  the  town 
with  everything  for  the  complete  comfort  of  life  as 


220  COLOMBIA 

known  in  European  capitals,  though,  of  course,  for 
ultra  luxuries  resort  is  had  abroad.  The  number 
of  artisans  (their  own  "  bosses  ")  may  be  of  interest  : 
architects  and  builders,  42  ;  carpenters,  350  ;  cabi- 
net makers,  80  ;  blacksmiths,  60  ;  tinsmiths,  70  ; 
tailors,  200;  saddlers  and  harness  makers,  iio; 
shoemakers,  350  ;  barbers,  80  ;  stonecutters,  50; 
florists,  80;  mechanics,  130;  dyers,  10.  There 
are  40  dentists,  and  a  like  number  of  pharmacists. 
According  to  the  last  census,  the  population  of  3ogota 
is    123,000. 

The  railroads  and  tramcar  lines,  the  National 
Government  and  the  municipality  are  also  large 
employers  of  labour  and  of  clerical  forces.  Office 
seekers  for  positions  great  and  small  gather  in  force 
— every  other  man  in  Bogota  deems  himself  entitled 
to  a  living  furnished  by  the  Government.  The 
routine  business  of  the  Government  is  run  with  con- 
siderable red  tape,  delay,  and  consequent  waste,  and 
civil  servants  are  not  worked  to  the  point  of  efficiency 
that  is  obtained  by  the  banks  and  commercial 
houses.  Even  in  these  there  is  an  absence  of  any 
rush  and  frenzy — business  moves  along  tranquilly, 
but  in  substantial  volume.  The  favourite  places  for 
discussing  commercial  and  financial  transactions  are 
certain  street-corners,  where  Bogota's  leading  busi- 
ness men  gather  daily  to  sun  themselves  and  make 
their  fortunes.  The  banks  represent  a  considerable 
aggregation  of  wealth,  and  two  national  general 
insurance  companies  (with  a  capital  respectively  of 
$2,000,000  and  $300,000  gold)  are  also  important 
financial  institutions.  A  few  foreign  bankers,  in- 
surance companies,  and  manufacturers  are  repre- 
sented by  agents,  and  the  stores  and  markets  are  well 
stocked  with  foreign  and  domestic  goods  and  pro- 
ducts. In  short,  nothing  is  wanting  for  all  the 
material    comforts   of   life. 

The  climate  is  on  the  whole  agreeable,  though  cool 


1  Pffll    '"■*' 


t 


THE  ANDEAN   REGIONS  221 

to  the  point  even  of  chilliness  in  early  mornings  and 
evenings  and  on  damp  days,  all  too  frequent,  and  the 
houses    seem    unsuited    to    the    climate,    built    as    are 
those  in  warmer  climes  with  large,  open  patios  and 
with  no  artificial  heating.     The  rarity  of  the  air  (the 
altitude  is  over  8,000  feet)  is  somewhat  trying.     One 
is  conscious  of  the  act  of  breathing  ;    the  new-comer 
finds  he  cannot  walk  briskly  for  many  minutes  with- 
out stopping  to  take  breath,  and  one  is  momentarily 
quite  exhausted,  for  instance,  after  a  set  of  tennis. i 
Save  for  people  with  weak  hearts,   for  whom  the 
altitude     might     be     risky,     Bogota     would     be     a 
thoroughly  healthful  place  were  only  its  water  supply 
and  sewage  better  attended  to.      The  present  water 
supply    is    not    only    insufficient    in    quantity    for    the 
city's  needs,  but  is  not  kept  free  from  contamination. 
The  sewage  drains  into  the  little  streams  traversing 
the  city,  which  are  not  only  left  uncovered,  but  where 
laundresses    are    allowed    to    come    and    wash    their 
linen.     It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  epidemics 
of  typhoid   fever   break   out   from   time   to   time.      It 
must    not    be    inferred    that    the    Bogotanos    are    not 
fully  alive  to  the  needs  of  the  situation  ;    but  while 
waiting  to  negotiate  a  large  loan  to  enable  the  city 
to  carry  forward  improvements  in  these  respects  and 
others,    minor    protective    measures    tha^t    could    be 
undertaken      with      present      resources      have      been 
neglected.       Other    improvements    that    are    needed 
are   better    paving    (the    cobblestones    of    the    streets 
make  driving,   except  on  one  or  two  thoroughfares, 
a   luxury   one   is   right   ready   to   forgo)    and   an   ex- 
tension   of    the    electric    tramways.      These    are    now 
owned    by    the    municipality,    which    bought    out    the 
American  company  for  $800,000,  cash  down,  after  a 
tense  situation  had  been  created  by  a  boycott,  fanned 

^  There  are  good  tennis  courts,  specially  at  the  grounds  of  the  Polo 
Club,  one  of  the  three  or  four  attractive  clubs  which  help  make  life 
pleasant  in  this  inland  capital. 


222  COLOMBIA 

by  anti -American  feeling,  which  sprang  out  of  an 
unfortunate  quarrel  between  the  American  manager 
and  the  police. 

To  offset  bad  water,  the  food  supply  is  excellent, 
and  of  wonderful  variety.  That  is  one  of  the  beauties 
of  the  climate  of  the  Sabana.  One  gets  all  northern 
fruits  and  flowers,  blooming  the  year  round,  and 
vegetables,  as  well  as  quite  a  few  of  the  tropical 
ones.  It  is  an  interesting  sight  to  see  tropical  palms 
growing  side  by  side  with  handsome  northern  trees, 
like  oaks  and  firs.  Some  of  the  Sabana  roads  are 
lined  with  blackberries,  and  one  gets  delicious  little 
wild  strawberries  ;  apples,  pears,  and  peaches  are 
grown,  though  usually  of  a  poor  quality,  not  properly 
cultivated.  Even  oranges  can  grow  on  the  Sabana, 
and  from  the  nearby  hot  country  they  send  up  all 
manner  of  tropical  fruits  and  vegetables.  Then  there 
is  no  dearth  of  good  cooks  :  the  epicure  can  enjoy 
private  dinners  and  public  banquets  equal  to  any 
in  the  world.  The  one  lady  who  reads  this  book  will 
be  interested  to  know  that  the  servant  problem  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum  in  Bogota  ;  good  domestics 
are  plentiful  and  cheap — five  to  ten  dollars  a  month 
is  high  pay.  In  the  houses  of  the  well-to-do  the  ser- 
vants are  well  treated  and  lead  happy  lives  ;  they 
have  ample  quarters  of  their  own,  centring  around 
their  own  patio;  and  enough  of  the  old  patriarchal 
regime  survives  to  make  them  really  a  part  of  the 
family. 

The  Bogotahos  are  exceptionally  hospitable  to 
foreigners,  for  whom  life  is  indeed  made  agreeable. 
And  none  need  thirst  for  even  intellectual  com- 
panionship. The  Bogotanos  are  proud,  and  rightly 
so,  of  their  literary  and  artistic  attainments.  Con- 
certs are  frequently  given,  and  occasionally  art 
exhibitions  are  held.  The  standard  of  operatic  per- 
formances is  high,  and  the  opera  and  the  drama  is 
well   housed   in   the   Teatro   Colon,    a   fine   building 


THE  ANDEAN   REGIONS  223 

with  attractive  foyers,  promenades,  and  reception- 
rooms.  Nowhere  else  in  the  world  perhaps  is  there 
a  keener  relish  for  literary  wit  and  a  keener  zest  for 
an  easy-going  literary  life  than  in  Bogota.  The 
National  Library  contains  60,000  volumes,  including 
some  priceless  incunabula  and  other  rare  works. 
There  are  a  number  of  book-stores  ;  two  especially, 
the  Libreria  Colombiana  and  the  Libreria  Americana, 
keep  up-to-date  stocks  of  foreign  books,  and  are 
not  surpassed  in  cities  five  times  the  size  of  Bogota. 
A  brief  view  of  the  intellectual  movement  in  Colombia 
I  shall  attempt  to  give  in  a  later  chapter.  Suffice  it 
to  say  for  the  present  that  Bogota  is  naturally  the 
heart  of  it,  and  that  it  has  well  deserved,  and  still 
deserves,  the  name  that  has  been  given  to  it  of 
the  Athens   of   South  America. 

The  masses?  An  interesting  account  of  the  type 
of  Indians  that  inhabit  the  plateaux  of  the  Eastern 
Cordillera  was  given  half  a  century  ago  by  a 
Colombian  writer,  Jose  Maria  Samper.  Making 
allowance  for  the  defects  of  broad  generalization 
which  this  prolific  writer  was  wont  to  indulge  in,  it 
holds  as  good  to-day  as  when  it  was  written.  Says 
Samper  : 

"  The  character  of  the  m  ass  of  the  Andine  population  (purely 
indigenous)  is  notable  for  patient  labour,  religious  sentiment  carried 
to  the  point  of  idolatry  and  th  e  grossest  superstition,  lack  of  every 
truly  artistic  sentiment,  love  of  a  sedentary  life,  of  immobility  and 
routine,  a  humility  full  of  timidity,  dissimulated  malice  which 
somewhat  tempers  the  relative  stupidity  of  the  muisca,  a  certain 
impassibility  which  makes  him  indifferent  to  all  strong  emotions,  a 
great  curiosity  respecting  purely  material  or  exterior  things,  spirit  of 
hospitalit}^  but  slightly  developed,  and  a  patent  incapacity  to  obey  the 
impulse  of  Progress.  .  .  .  The  Indian  of  the  plateaux  is  wanting  in 
enthusiasm  and  passion,  but  loves  marriage  and  is  faithful  to  his 
hearth  and  wife.  Moreover,  he  loves  his  little  bit  of  soil  to  servility 
and  likes  chiclia  to  an  excess  which  frequently  leads  him  to 
drunkenness.  He  adores  processions  and  mummeries  and  displays 
much  credulity  for  the  marvellous.  Weak  in  hand-to-hand  struggle 
because  his  strength  resides  only  in  his  neck,  back,  and  legs,  and 


224  COLOMBIA 

without  any  dash  in  combat,  he  displays  nevertheless  an  astounding 
endurance  in  carrying  enormous  weights  and  exhibits  the  stupid 
valour  of  passive  obedience.  He  can  neither  run  nor  ride  a  horse, 
but  walks  days  without  feeling  any  fatigue,  provided  he  is  given 
chicha,  and  he  travels  horrible  roads  and  paths  laden  with  some 
huge  case  of  stupendous  volume  and  weighing  150  kilograms  or  more, 
supporting  himself  on  a  heavy  cane,  bowed  double  with  the  load  but 
never  exhausted  nor  weakening.  As  poor  a  hunter  as  he  is  a  fighter, 
because  he  lacks  initiative,  daring,  and  agility,  he  nevertheless  makes 
an  excellent  soldier  of  the  line.  True,  he  rarely  advances,  but  he 
never  retreats,  and  ever  knows  how  to  die  at  his  post,  to  which  he 
seems  nailed  alike  in  victory  as  in  defeat. 

"  For  the  Indian  of  the  Andine  countryside,  the  ties  of  society  are 
perilous,  the  schoolmaster  is  an  incomprehensible  myth,  the  alcalde 
a  useless  personage,  the  parish  priest  a  demi-god,  and  the  tax- 
collector  little  less  than  the  pest  or  thunderbolt.  His  life  is  concen- 
trated upon  his  primitive  hut  and  half  acre  of  farm,  and  his  great 
festival  day  that  upon  which  he  goes  to  the  market-place,  principally 
Bogota,  to  sell  his  fruit  and  vegetables,  his  chickens  and  eggs,  carried 
in  reed  cages  laden  on  his  back  and  strapped  to  his  forehead.  The 
muisca  Indian  is  neither  quarrelsome  nor  communicative,  neither 
revengeful  nor  obsequious.  Selfish,  timid,  and  distrustful,  he  avoids 
written  agreements,  hides  himself  on  recruiting  days  and  elections 
and  when  a  census  is  being  taken,  and  does  everything  possible  to 
evade  taxes.  In  short,  the  descendant  of  the  muiscas  is  a  passive 
being,  a  kind  of  deaf-mute  in  the  presence  of  European  civilization, 
incapable  of  either  good  or  bad,  thanks  to  the  sad  state  in  which  he 
has  lived  since  the  Conquest  and  to  the  inelasticity  of  his  intellectual 
and  moral  faculties. 

"  While  the  men  are  generally  cold,  suspicious,  and  hypocritical, 
the  women  on  the  contrary  often  show  themselves  frank,  kind, 
unselfish,  accessible  to  kind  treatment,  grateful,  and  good  mothers. 
The  women  have  no  less  endurance  relatively  than  the  men  for  long 
journeys  and  carrying  heavy  weights.  Both  sexes  are  fond  of  money 
for  money's  sake  :  they  haggle; impertinently  and  look  with  suspicion 
at  all  coin  tendered  them.  It  is  but  justice  to  recognize  that  all  their 
defects  are  rather  the  consequence  of  vicious  prior  institutions  and 
of  the  exploitation  more  or  less  crafty  or  violent  to  which  these  poor 
natives  have  been  subjected  by  the  priests,  the  large  landed 
proprietors,  and  influential  men  of  their  small  localities.  These  defects 
are  also  due  to  the  absolute  lack  of  elementary  education  in  many 
rural  districts.  .  .  ." 

Besides  to  Indian  villages,  there  are  a  number  of 
interesting   excursions    that    the    traveller   can   make 


THE   ANDEAN    REGIONS  225 

from  Bogota.  Taking  any  of  the  railroads,  one 
reaches  various  points  of  the  Sabana,  which  give 
one  an  excellent  idea  of  its  remarkable  fertility  and 
farming  development  and  of  the  comfort  of  the 
nearby  country  residences,  summer  resorts  of  the 
Bogotanos.  Bogotd  lies  at  the  very  foot  of  two 
mountains,  Guadalupe  and  Monserrate,  each  crowned 
with  an  interesting  old  chapel  ;  the  easy  ascent  of 
either  of  these  is  well  repaid  :  the  view  from  the 
summit  is  noteworthy  for  its  extent,  variety,  and 
beauty.  But  the  one  excursion  that  no  visitor  can 
afford  to  miss  is  to  the  famous  falls  of  Tequendama, 
which  are  situated  some  three  miles  or  so  from  one 
of  the  little  stations  on  the  railway  del  Sur.  The 
ride  from  the  station  by  the  shores  of  the  Bogotd 
River  is  enjoyable,  passing  rapids  and  the  electric 
plant  which  supplies  light  and  power  to  the  city  ; 
the  enterprise,  a  model  one  in  point  of  equipment 
and  operation,  has  been  an  exceedingly  profitable 
venture  for  the  native  owners.  The  falls  themselves 
are  remarkable  for  their  height,  some  450  feet, 
three  times  that  of  Niagara,  rather  than  for  the 
volume  of  water,  but  it  is  the  beauty  of  the  whole 
scene  that  beggars  description.  The  river,  suddenly 
leaving  the  plateau,  h^as  eroded  an  enormous  oval 
basin  :  it  is  as  if  a  colossal  hand  had  scooped  a 
tremendous  basin  out  of  the  mountain — a  huge  round 
hole  with  sheer  precipitous  cliffs  down  to  a  dizzy 
depth,  and  steep,  wooded  mountains  rising  all  around. 
At  one  end  the  river  crashes  down,  arching  over  the 
rocky  walls,  to  be  dispersed  in  clouds  of  spray  ; 
at  the  other  end  the  tremendous  basin  or  crater 
narrows  its  walls  into  a  canon,  through  which  flows 
the  now  seemingly  tiny  river  ;  on  a  level  with  our 
eyes  and  above  our  heads,  trees  of  northern  growth, 
far  below  us  the  fluffy-topped,  interwoven  tropical 
vegetation  already  begins  to  show  itself. 

Longer  excursions,  more  arduous  but   well  worth 

16 


226  COLOMBIA 

while,  are  to  the  sacred  lakes  of  Tunja  and  Guatavita, 
intimately  connected  with  the  religious  rites  of  the 
Chibchas,  and  into  which  they  are  reputed  to  have 
cast  much  of  their  treasure  to  prevent  it  from  fall- 
ing into  the  hands  of  the  goldthirsty  Spaniards.  As 
a  consequence  of  these  traditions,  thousands  and 
thousands  of  dollars  have  been  spent  by  fortune- 
hunters,  both  in  the  old  days  and  in  recent  times^ 
in  attempts  to  recover  this  sunken  wealth  ;  com- 
panies have  even  been  formed  and  stock  sold  abroad 
to  dredge  and  drain  these  lakes  ;  interesting 
archaeological  relics  have  been  found,  and  a  little 
treasure  has  been  brought  up,  but  so  far  in  in- 
sufficient quantity  to  repay  expenses.  Guatavita  is 
specially  interesting  as  being  the  traditional  home 
of  El  Dorado,  the  gilded  man.  An  old  Spanish 
chronicler,  Juan  Rodriguez  Fresle,  writing  just  a 
century  after  the  Conquest,  gives  the  following 
version  of  the  Indian  legend  : 

"  It  was  the  custom  among  this  tribe  that  the  prince  who  was  to 
succeed  his  uncle  in  the  kingdom  (such  was  the  law  of  descent)  had 
to  fast  six  years  enclosed  in  a  cave  dedicated  for  that  purpose, 
during  all  which  time  he  could  not  converse  with  women,  nor  eat 
meat  nor  salt  nor  peppers  nor  other  forbidden  things.  Likewise  it 
was  forbidden  him  to  see  the  sun  :  only  at  night  was  he  allowed  to 
go  forth  and  see  the  moon  and  the  stars,  and  he  had  to  retire  before 
the  sun  shone  on  him.  The  long  fast  completed,  he  was  enthroned 
king  and  cacique,  and  the  first  day  of  his  reign  he  had  to  journey 
forth  to  the  great  lake  Guatavita  and  there  make  offerings  and 
sacrifices  to  the  Demon,  whom  they  regarded  as  God  and  Ruler. 
The  ceremony  consisted  in  this  :  on  this  lake  they  built  a  great  raft, 
decorating  it  and  adorning  it  as  beautifully  as  possible :  on  it 
they  placed  four  brasiers  wherein  they  burnt  much  moque,  which  is 
the  incense  of  these  parts,  and  turpentine  and  many  other  diverse 
perfumes.  At  this  epoch,  the  lake  was  round  and  very  deep,  so  that 
a  big  ship  could  navigate  it.  A  multitude  of  Indians,  men  and 
women,  decorated  with  gay  plumage,  bright  dresses,  and  each  with 
a  crown  of  gold,  encircled  the  lake.  Bonfires  were  prepared  all 
around,  and  just  as  soon  as  they  began  to  burn  incense  on  the  raft, 
the  bonfires  were  lighted  on  land,  so  that  the  smoke  made  the  sun 
and  daylight  invisible.     Thereupon,  the  prince  was  stripped  naked 


THE   ANDEAN   REGIONS  227 

and  anointed  with  a  sticky  clay,  and  powdered  with  gold  dust  until 
he  was  completely  covered  with  the  precious  metal.  He  was  then 
placed  on  the  raft,  whereon  he  stood  erect,  and  at  his  feet  was  placed 
a  mountain  of  gold  and  emeralds  for  him  to  offer  as  a  sacrifice  to  the 
gods.  With  him  went  the  four  most  important  caciques,  his  subjects, 
likewise  muchly  adorned  with  plumage,  and  crowns,  bracelets, 
anklets,  and  earrings  of  gold,  and  each  one  took  an  offering.  As  the 
raft  left  the  shore,  thousands  of  trumpets,  flutes,  and  other  instruments 
began  to  play,  and  a  great  shout  arose,  thundering  throughout  the 
mountain  and  the  valleys,  and  the  noise  continued  until  the  raft 
reached  the  middle  of  the  lake,  whence  the  waving  of  a  banner  gave 
the  signal  for  silence.  Then  the  golden  Indian  {el  iiiciio  dorado) 
made  his  sacrifice,  throwing  all  the  gold  at  his  feet  into  the  lake, 
and  the  other  caciques  who  accompanied  him  did  likewise.  The 
sacrifice  completed,  they  lowered  the  banner,  which  all  this  time  had 
been  held  aloft,  and  as  the  raft  returned  to  land,  the  shouts  and 
music  recommenced,  and  they  danced  and  gesticulated  in  their 
manner.  Such  was  the  ceremony  with  which  they  crowned  their 
king,  recognizing  him  as  Lord  and  Ruler. 

"  From  this  ceremony  is  derived  the  famous  name  of  El  Dorado, 
which  has  cost  so  many  lives  and  so  much  property.  .  .  ." 

Treasures  a  thousandfold  greater  than  those  of 
a  gilded  Indian  ruler  still  await  the  modern  business 
conquistador  in  Colombia.  They  will  be  no  gambler's 
find,  but  the  conquests  of  modern  science,  applied 
with  energy,  initiative,  and  patient  perseverance,  over 
the  country's  rich  natural  resources. 


CHAPTER    XV 

THE    LLANOS   AND  THE   SELVAS 

The  low  plain  that  extends  from  the  Eastern 
Cordillera  of  the  Andes  to  the  distant  frontiers,  the 
vast  hinterland  that  stretches  roadless  and  lonely 
to  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco  on  the  east  and  of 
the  Amazon  or  its  tributaries  on  the  south,  is 
admittedly  of  little  present-day  commercial  import- 
ance ;  but  so  lavishly  have  its  praises  been  sounded, 
in  such  glowing  colours  have  its  possibilities  been 
painted,  and  with  such  assurance  has  it  been  fore- 
cast as  the  seat  of  a  coming  empire,  that  no  volume 
on  Colombia  would  be  complete  without  at  least 
a  summary  of  the  scanty  knowledge  at  hand  con- 
cerning these  domains  and  an  examination  of  the 
possible  bases  for  such  extravagant  claims. 

Land  there  is,  land  stretching  out  interminably, 
vast  areas  of  it  1  There  is  territory  enough  and  to 
spare  for  a  population,  under  favourable  conditions, 
of  millions  upon  millions.  Hundreds  of  thousands 
of  square  miles  ;  an  area,  even  waiving  the  nation's 
rights  to  disputed  territory,  equal  to  that  of  France 
and  Germany  put  together,  more  than  one -half, 
nearly  two-thirds,  of  Colombia's  entire  territory  is 
comprised  in  this  outlying  region. 

A  natural  division  is  afforded  into  two  zones,  the 
northern,  that  of  the  llanos,  open  grassy  plains, 
sparsely  wooded,  watered  by  the  tributaries  of  the 
Orinoco  ;  the  southern,  that  of  the  selvas  or  forests 
of  the  great  Amazon  watershed.     Roughly  speaking, 

228 


THE   LLANOS   AND   THE   SELVAS     229 

the  boundary  line  between  the  two  is  formed  by 
the  Guaviare  River,  the  southernmost  east  and  west 
tributary  of  the  Orinoco. 

I  have  said  that  knowledge  of  these  regions  is 
scanty.  Above  all,  beware  of  maps.  Only  a  few 
of  the  more  important  watercourses  have  been  in 
any  way  surveyed,  and  in  the  maze  of  guesswork 
to  be  found  in  the  maps  of  Colombia  published 
in  books  on  that  country  (including  this  one)  and 
in  general  atlases,  there  are  serious  errors,  obvious 
upon  the  most  cursory  reading  of  the  geographical 
literature  of  the  region. 

The  northernmost  subdivision,  Casanare,  lying  be- 
tween one  tributary  of  the  Orinoco,  the  Arauca,  on 
the  north,  and  another,  the  Meta,  on  the  south,  and 
between  the  frontier  of  Venezuela  on  the  east  and 
the  Andes  on  the  west,  is  fairly  well  known,  although 
not  accurately  mapped,  and  to  it  it  is  that  reference 
is  generally  made  when  the  llanos  (continuation  of 
the  Venezuela  plains  of  like  character  first  scienti- 
fically described  by  Humboldt)  are  spoken  of, 
although  the  term  also  covers  the  lesser  known  plains 
of  San  Martin,  to  the  south  of  the  Meta.  Of  these, 
only  the  parts  in  proximity  to  the  more  settled  slopes 
of  the  Andes,  lying  just  east  and  south  of  Bogota, 
are  known. 

Casanare  is  under  the  rule  of  a  special  governor 
or  commissioner,  called  the  comlsario,  in  whom 
legislative  as  well  as  executive  powers  are  vested, 
subject  to  the  direct  supervision  of  the  national 
Executive.  Such  supervision  can  only  be  tardily 
exercised.  The  mail  from  Bogota  now  goes  to  the 
headquarters  of  the  comisarla  at  Arauca,  via  Orocue, 
and  takes  forty  days  or  more  :  the  nearest  tele- 
graph stations  are  Cucuta,  practicably  inaccessible, 
and  Pore,  over  300  miles  away.  Arauca  is 
a  little  town  of  3,472  inhabitants,  lying  on  the 
south  shore  of  the  river  of  the  same  name.       The 


230  COLOMBIA 

opposite  bank  pertains  to  Venezuela.  Here,  also, 
is  the  national  Custom-house,  but  the  revenue  returns 
are  very  scanty,  insufficient  to  pay  even  the  moderate 
expenses  of  the  officials.  This  is  not  due  entirely 
to  the  small  volume  of  commerce,  but  to  the  fact 
also  that  tvi^o-thirds  of  the  trade  is  contraband.  The 
length  of  the  frontier,  some  450  miles,  guarded 
only  by  a  half-dozen  revenue  officers,  and  the 
proximity  of  Venezuelan  trading -posts,  make  smug- 
gling temptingly  easy  ;  v^^herever  there  is  a 
Colombian  village,  there  is  also  a  Venezuelan  settle- 
ment to  match  it,  across  the  frontier,  thriving  on 
illicit  trade,  and  placed  there  solely  to  be  enabled 
to  pass  into  Colombia  with  impunity  merchandise 
already  enhanced  by  high  duties  upon  entering  into 
Venezuela.  In  these  Colombian  tow^ns,  accordingly, 
there  are  many  Venezuelans  ;  commercial  relations 
are  chiefly  with  Venezuela,  and  Venezuelan  money, 
not  Colombian  bills,  generally  circulates. 

The  only  present-day  importance  of  Casanare  is 
on  account  of  its  cattle  industry.  According  to  Padre 
Delgado,  there  were  in  1907  some  150  hatos  or 
cattle  ranches,  some  with  as  many  as  1 5,000  to 
20,000  head,  others  with  not  more  than  300  :  he 
estimates  the  total  number  of  cattle  at  not  more 
than  250,000,  and  some  50,000  horses  in  addition. 
The  number  has  since  gradually  increased.  The 
animals  for  the  most  part  are  poor,  lean  stock.  All 
is  not  plain  sailing  for  the  cattle  breeder.  There 
is  an  abundance  of  natural  grazing  lands,  but  the 
vaunted  richness  of  the  llanos  proves  to  be  much 
of  a  myth.  Immense  herds  could  undoubtedly  be 
raised  here,  and  in  the  course  of  generations,  when 
cattle  lands  elsewhere  in  the  world,  as  is  already 
happening  in  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
Argentina,  become  too  valuable  for  grazing,  the 
llanos  will  unquestionably  become  vast  cattle  ranges. 
But     there     are    many     present-day     disadvantages. 


THE    LLANOS   AND   THE   SELVAS     231 

There  is  an  almost  total  lack  of  roads  ;  such  as 
exist  are  horrible,  and  can  be  traversed  only  with 
some  danger  ;  the  swamps  and  morasses,  and 
especially  the  rivers,  unbridged,  furnish  grave 
obstacles  to  land  travel  in  the  rainy  season  ;  the 
rivers  are  really  navigable  only  in  the  rainy 
season,  and  the  distance  to  the  ocean  is  discouraging. 
And  then  climatic  conditions  are  adverse.  For  eight 
or  nine  months  in  the  year  there  is  such  an  over- 
abundance of  rain  that,  in  default  of  proper  atten- 
tion to  the  watercourses,  the  savannahs  become 
swamped  and  the  settlements  menaced  with  ruin. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  drought  during  the  rest  of 
the  year  is  so  intense  that  the  smaller  streams  dry 
up  and  the  paiched  grass  affords  insufficient  susten- 
ance for  the  live-stock.  Of  course,  these  adverse 
conditions  are  largely  remediable,  but  the  Govern- 
ment is  at  present  powerless,  and  seems  destined 
to  remain  so  for  years  to  come,  to  command  resources 
sufficient  to  encompass  the  remedy.  Private  enter- 
prise could  do  little  more  than  dig  artesian  wells, 
which  could  serve  for  irrigation  as  well  as  supply 
badly  needed  drinking  water,  and  thus  cope  with  the 
worst  evils  of  the  dry  season.  Water,  it  is  reported, 
can  be  found  almost  anywhere,  even  in  the  extreme 
drought,  at  a  depth  of  only  a  few  feet.  The  vaster 
measures,  the  proper  attention  to  the  watercourses,  so 
as  at  once  to  limit  the  overflow  in  the  time  of  freshets 
and  by  storage  utilize  for  beneficial  purposes  the  now 
maleficent  floods,  require  an  enormous  capital  ex- 
penditure. It  seems  scarcely  likely  that  in  the 
present  stage  of  Colombia's  development  private 
interests,  not  even  the  richest  "  beef  barons  "  of  the 
world,  will  undertake  the  work.  In  a  few  sections 
of  the  llanos,  however,  there  are  undeniably  favour- 
able opportunities  for  foreign  as  well  as  native 
investment,  on  a  comparatively  large  scale,  in  cattle 
ranches  ;      in     addition     to     tracts     that     could     be 


232  COLOMBIA 

purchased  from  private  owners,  there  are  many 
savannahs  that  are  still  baldias,  or  public  lands. 
Possibly  there  might  be  a  field,  too,  for  packing- 
houses, in  connection  with  a  line  of  refrigerator 
steamers,  for  which,  however,  a  new  type  would 
have  to  be  devised.  The  investments  should  be 
on  a  large  scale,  because  without  considerable  surplus 
capital  available  to  overcome  obstacles  and  to  tide 
over  the  delays  that  seem  inevitable  in  all  Colombian 
enterprises,  one  would  not  be  well  advised  to  enter 
the   field. 

For  agriculture  the  prospects  are  less  favourable 
than  for  cattle  breeding.  J.  M.  Vargas  Vergara,  a 
Colombian  authority  on  the  eastern  domains  of  his 
country,   says  : 

**  A  deeply-rooted  idea  prevails  among  us  that 
the  llano  is  a  privileged  region  which  has  no  equal 
for  exuberance  and  fertility  of  soil.  ...  In  my 
opinion  there  are  no  poorer  lands  nor  any  less 
suitable  for  agriculture  in  the  whole  Republic.  Does 
not  the  fact  that  immense  areas  of  land  are  endowed 
with  no  vegetation  other  than  grasses  and  leguminous 
shrubs  prove  the  soil  to  be  thin  and  to  contain  little 
vegetable  humus?  Is  this  the  vegetation  of  the 
valley  of  the  Cauca,  of  the  Magdalena,  of  the 
Caqueta?  Where  is  the  fertility  of  the  llanosl  I 
have  seen  the  pasture  insufficient  even  to  breed 
cattle,  and  have  seen  them  die  for  lack  of  nourish- 
ment. Not  a  single  plant  of  those  that  man  needs 
for  his  sustenance  attracted  my  attention  by  its 
growth  or  by  its  yield.  The  llano  is  fertile  only 
for  him  who  knows   it  not." 

Of  course,  there  are  exceptions,  as  the  writer  takes 
care  to  point  out.  The  foot  of  the  Cordillera,  the 
vegas  of  the  Guaviare,  the  highlands  of  the  Ynirida 
(he  is  speaking  also  of  the  region  to  the  south  of 
the  llanos),  the  banks  of  the  Guainia  and  Rio 
Negro  are  suitable  for  agriculture  :    sugar-cane  could 


THE   LLANOS   AND   THE   SELVAS     233 

be  raised,  and  there  are  good  rice  lands.  At  Arau- 
quita,  a  village  on  the  Arauca  considerably  further 
upstream  than  the  town  of  Arauca  and  situated  on 
the  fringe  of  the  rich  forest  of  the  little  known  but 
promising  Sarare  River  section,  the  soil  is  exceed- 
ingly fertile,  and  its  rice,  cacao,  sugar,  maize,  and 
plantains,  besides  rubber  and  resins  from  the  nearby 
forests,   furnish  a  trade   of  some  little  importance. 

The  same  writer  attributes  the  legend  as  to  the 
richness  of  the  llanos  to  the  pleasing  effect  they 
produce  upon  the  traveller,  wearied  with  the  hard- 
ships of  mountain  travel,  when  they  first  meet  his 
awebound  gaze.  The  striking  impression  conveyed 
is  depicted  by  Professor  Rothlisberger,  in  a  well- 
known  passage  which  I  believe  has  not  hitherto 
found   its    way    into    English    print  :  i 

*  El  Dorado  (Bern,  1898,  pp.  211,  212).  The  reader  will  pardon 
the  frequent  quotations  in  this  chapter,  but  although  I  had  ex- 
tensive interests  some  years  ago  in  large  concessions  in  some 
parts  of  this  region,  I  have  never  visited  any  of  the  places 
mentioned,  and  all  my  information  is  based  on  hearsay.  Of 
recent  writers.  Burger  and  the  scholarly  prelate  who  writes  so 
charmingly  under  the  name  of  Dr.  Mozans,  have  described  the  trip 
on  the  Meta,  Father  Delgado  minutely  surveys  Casanare,  Professor 
Bingham  describes  his  route  across  the  northern  llanos  from  Arauca 
via  Pore  to  Boyacd,  Modesto  Garcia  and  Santiago  Perez  Triana  the 
voyage  down  the  Vichada,  Crevaux  his  travels  on  the  Guaviare 
(which  he  attempted  to  name  de  Lesseps),  the  Caqueta,  and  the 
Putumayo,  also  described  by  Reyes,  Simson,  Rocha,  Miguel  Triana, 
and  see  the  Boletin  de  la  Socicdad  Gcografica  de  Lima,  vol.  xv.  (1904), 
p.  60  (good  map),  and  Bolelin  del  Ministro  de  Fomento  {Lima),  1903, 
p.  86 ;  Dr.  Koch-Griinberg  supplies  information  as  to  many  of  the 
southern  rivers,  Montolieu  as  to  the  Ynirida  {Bull.de  laSoc.deGeog., 
p.  289,  1880).  Geographically  important  are  Brisson's  Casanare,  the 
reports  of  the  engineers  of  the  Boundary  Commission  in  Uribe's 
Anales  Diplomaticos,  vols.  i.  and  ii.,  and  Dr.  Hamilton  Rice's  article  on 
the  Vaupes  in  the  Geog.  Journal,  June,  1910  (for  titles  of  the  works 
mentioned  above,  see  the  Bibliography  ;  for  Chaffangon's,  Stradelli's, 
and  other  travels,  see  the  Bibliography  in  Dalton's  Venezuela)  (South 
American  Series).  Valuable  information  is  to  be  had  from  Vargas 
Vergara's  articles  in  the  Boletin  de  Obras  Publicas  (Bogota,  1909), 
and  in  the  reports  published  in  the  Informe  del  Ministro  de  Gobierno 
(Bogota,  1912). 


234  COLOMBIA 

"  How  can  I  describe  my  astonishment  and  rapture 
as  of  a  sudden  I  saw  the  boundless  plains  of  the 
llanos  spread  out  before  me?  It  is  difficult  to  form 
an  idea  of  the  immensity  and  grandeur  of  this 
panorama,  which  will  ever  remain  indelibly  engraven 
on  the  spectator's  memory.  We  stand  on  the  last 
outpost  of  the  Cordillera,  only  700  metres  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  in  a  mighty  virgin  forest. 
To  the  right,  streams  gush  out  from  mountain  gorges 
to  the  plains.  To  the  left,  the  Cordillera  loses  itself 
in  the  dim  distant  north,  throwing  out  here  and 
there  a  branch  that  seems  in  the  blue  distance  like 
an  outpost  of  a  fortress.  These  are  the  mountains 
of  Medina,  separated  from  the  main  mass.  Before 
us  the  llanos  stretch  out  in  a  perfect  semicircle  of  a 
radius  of  30  leagues.  No  greater  contrast  can  be 
imagined  than  that  between  the  intricate  massive- 
ness  of  the  Cordillera,  rising  to  the  region  of  per- 
petual snow,  and  this  uniform  tropical  plain.  Great 
and  majestic  in  its  solitude  and  mystery  is  the  ocean  ; 
greater  and  more  impressivie  are  the  llanos.  The  ocean 
waves  are  rigid  and  dead,  an  image  of  Dread  and 
of  blind  Might  ;  but  the  llano,  strewn  with  variegated 
colours,  is  the  image  of  Life — Life  that  preaches 
unto  man  not  his  puny  impotence,  but  an  awaken- 
ing Hope,  such  as  aroused  the  companions  of 
Columbus  when  the  magic  cry  rang  out,  '  Land  ! 
land  1  ' 

"  The  llanos  are  said  to  be  monotonous  ;  not  so, 
as  seen  from  this  place.  Countless  rivers  cut  slowly 
through  the  plains,  like  silver  ribbons  unwinding 
in  the  distance.  These  streams  are  all  fringed  with 
dense  virgin  forest,  so  that  three  intermingled 
colours  strew  the  landscape — the  silver-grey  of  the 
waters,  the  lush  green -grey  of  the  pastures, 
heightened  in  colour  during  the  fertile  rainy  season, 
and  the  flecks  of  forest,  dark  shadows  diversifying 
the  predominant  green.    .    .   ." 


THE   LLANOS   AND   THE   SELVAS     235 

A  few  regions  of  Casanare,  but  very  few,  are 
hindered  in  their  development  by  occasional  out- 
breaks of  heathen  Indians,  but  the  number  of  these 
throughout  the  territory  appears  to  have  been  ex- 
aggeratedly reported.  Father  Delgado  states  that 
the  number  of  infidels  approximates  only  2,000,  a 
mere  handful  when  the  vast  extent  of  territory 
through  which  they  are  dispersed  is  considered.  The 
civilized  population  is  about  16,000  to  20,000, 
gathered  for  the  most  part  in  or  around  a  dozen 
villages.  The  old  type  llanero,  half  Spanish,  half 
Indian,  the  wild,  brave,  restless,  devil-may-care  cow- 
boy, a  "  Cossack  of  the  Colombian  Steppes  "  and 
a  boastful  Tartarin  full  of  poetic  fire,  rolled  into  one, 
is  rapidly  disappearing.  Vanished  is  the  poetry  and 
romance  of  his  life,  if  it  ever  really  existed  outside 
of  his  remarkable  cantos,  wherein  heroic  exploits, 
as  soldier,  as  hunter,  and  as  gallant  lover,  are  re- 
counted with  a  superb  hyperbole.  He  seems  to  have 
tamed  down  completely,  in  spite  of  the  solitary,  open- 
air  life,  and  in  spite  of  the  continuance  of  a  certain 
element  of  danger,  battling  with  the  elements — 
encounters  with  jaguars,  reptiles,  and  savage  Indians 
are,  however,  in  fact,  the  rarest  of  episodes  in  the 
life  of  even  the  most  daring  and  exposed  llanero. 

"  The  great  fact  that  does  impress  one,"  writes 
Professor  Bingham,'  "  is  the  general  shiftlessness 
and  carelessness  of  the  common  people.  They  seem 
to  be  contented  with  less  than  any  civilized  people 
I  have  ever  seen.  Their  food  is  wretched  and  infre- 
quent, their  houses  are  extremely  dirty,  they  are 
constantly  tormented  by  noxious  insects,  everything 
that  they  can  buy  is  expensive,  there  is  little  evidence 
of  a  beneficent  Government,  titles  to  property  seem 
to  be  insecure,  and  yet  with  it  all  they  rarely  com- 

•  Pp.  IT3,  115,  'Journal  of  an  Expedition  Across  Venezuela  and 
Colombia  (New  Haven,  Conn.,  and  London,  T.  Fisher  Unwin, 
1909). 


236  COLOMBIA 

plain.  They  seem  to  be  without  ambition."  "  The 
llanero  or  cowboy  is  rather  wild,  restless,  and  shift- 
less, not  caring  to  work  except  on  horseback.  The 
peon  seems  to  be  a  much  more  valuable  citizen. 
But  it  is  very  difficult  to  draw  any  distinct  lines, 
and  there  seem  to  be  few  definite  types  .  .  .  the 
children  are  naked  or  scantily  clad,  and  most  of 
them  have  enlarged  spleens  and  other  malarial 
symptoms." 

Malarial  fevers  are  everywhere  prevalent,  as  might 
be  expected  where  there  are  so  many  swamps. 
Besides,  the  natives  use  stagnant  water,  often  un- 
speakably bad,  uncontaminated  rivers  being  often 
at  a  great  distance,  and  their  wells,  uncovered  and 
unprotected,  are  other  breeding-grounds  of  disease. 
The  heat,  however,  is  tempered  by  the  constant 
winds,  often  rising,  particularly  at  the  beginning  of 
the  rains,  to  the  violence  of  destructive  hurricanes. 

The  Meta,  the  principal  river  of  the  llanos,  is 
infrequently  navigated  at  high  water  by  small 
steamers  from  Ciudad  Bolivar  (Venezuela)  to  Orocue, 
a  point  near  the  Andes,  some  300  miles  from  the 
Orinoco  and  about  1,000  miles  from  the  Atlantic. 
The  Custom-house  here  is  very  like  that  at  Arauca, 
the  expenses  of  administration  not  being  covered 
by  the  duties  collected.  Boats  occasionally  ascend 
higher  upstream  to  the  little  village  of  Barrigon, 
which  is  only  two  days'  ride  from  Villavicencio,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Cordillera.  Villavicencio,  the  capital 
of  the  Meta  territory,  is  at  a  distance  of  only  2 1 
leagues  from  Bogota,  usually  covered  on  horse  in  two 
or  two  and  a  half  days.  Orocue  exports  hides,  a  little 
coffee  brought  down  from  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Andes,  some  odds  and  ends  of  rubber  and  other 
forest  products,  and  plumes  from  the  garza,  the 
graceful  Colombian  heron  that  is  being  rapidly 
exterminated   to  gratify   the   vanity   of   womenfolk. 

The    Orinoco    forms    the    boundary    of    Colombia 


VAQUERO,   OR  COWBOY. 


THE   LLANOS   AND   THE   SELVAS    237 

from  its  junction  with  the  Meta  south  for  a  dis- 
tance of  230  miles,  but  its  navigation  is  interrupted 
by  the  rapids  of  Atures  and  Maipures,  which 
furnished  the  theme  for  brilliant  passages,  now 
classic,  in  Humboldt's  narrative  of  his  equinoctial 
voyages.  Just  below  the  rapids  the  main  stream 
receives  the  waters  of  the  Vichada,  a  river  which 
appears  never  yet  to  have  been  entered  by  a  steamer 
or  launch,  and  is  wholly  unsettled  except  by  a  few 
Indian  tribes,  The  Vichada  supplies  a  large  share 
of  the  yucca  that  forms  the  chief  food  of  the  upper 
Orinoco  region.  This  starchy  plant  (also  called 
manihot)  is  of  two  varieties,  the  bitter  and  the 
sweet  ;  the  former,  curiously  enough,  is  poisonous, 
but  from  it  is  made,  extracting  the  poison,  the 
mahoco  and  cassava  (known  also  in  the  West  Indies 
and  the  Guianas),  the  main  articles  in  the  scanty  diet, 
sometimes  verging  on  famine-rations,  of  the  region. 

South  of  the  Vichada  is  the  Guaviare,  which,  with 
the  affluents  Ynirida  and  Atabapo  near  its  mouth, 
is  the  last,  or  rather  the  first,  great  tributary  of  the 
Orinoco.  Here  we  enter  the  great  forest  belt,  the 
heart  of  South  America,  watered  by  the  Amazon 
system,  with  which,  through  its  strange  piracy  from 
the  Rio  Negro  of  the  waters  of  the  Casiquiare,  the 
Orinoco  is  connected. 

Of  the  Amazon  rivers,  four  in  Colombia  are 
worthy  of  special  mention,  the  Rio  Negro,  called 
the  Guainia  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course,  its  tribu- 
tary the  Vaupes  (spelled  also  Waupes),  the  Caquetd, 
and  the  now  notorious  Putumayo.  The  tide  of 
initial  exploration  of  this  region  has  but  recently 
begun,  coincident  with  the  development  of  the 
rubber  industry,  which,  in  lieu  of  furnishing  a  factor 
of  civilization,  has  afforded  scope  for  displays  of 
primal  barbarism  on  the  part  of  whites  against  the 
less   civilized   but   certainly   less   savage   Indians. 

The    Guaviare    (still    of    the    Orinco    system,    but 


238  COLOMBIA 

during  flood-time  interlaced  by  connecting  swamps 
and  overflows  with  the  Amazon  streams)  is  formed  by 
the  union  of  the  Ariari  with  the  Guayabero.  None 
of  the  three  is  really  navigable  ;  in  the  dry  season 
even  canoes  are  stranded  several  times  a  day,  and  in 
the  rainy  season  there  are  difficulties.  The  Ariari 
is  connected  with  Villavicencio  by  a  trocha,  a  rough 
foot  trail  most  of  the  way  ;  six  days'  cano^ng- 
down  the  Ariari  is  required  before  reaching  the 
Guayabero  ;  one  day  more  brings  one  to  San  Jos^, 
a  group  of  twenty  houses,  where  a  fair  trade  in 
rubber  is  carried  on.  There  is  also  a  kind  of  a 
road  over  which  cattle  can  be  driven  from  San 
Martin,  the  last  outpost  of  civilization  on  the  llanos, 
to  San  Jos6.  Although  the  distance  in  a  bee-line 
is  only  about  35  leagues,  the  road,  following  all  the 
turns  of  the  ridge  of  the  watershed  hill,  is  about 
45  leagues  in  length  ;  its  character  can  be  judged 
by  the  fact  that  fifteen  days'  march  is  required  to 
travel  it.  This  road  goes  through  a  well -endowed, 
rich,  fertile,  and  beautiful  region,  with  a  healthful 
climate,  dry  and  relatively  cool  (average  80°),  where 
extensive  cattle  ranches  could  be  established  to 
better  advantage  than  on  the  llanos,  but  in  its  whole 
extent  there  is  not  a  habitation  nor  a  human  being — 
the  beasts  exercise  complete  dominion.  The  main 
axis  of  this  series  of  hills — the  direction  of  the 
branches  is  unknown — falls  to  the  River  Ariari  at 
its  confluence  with  the  Guayabero,  the  right  bank 
of  which  it  coasts  for  a  long  distance  and  then 
follows  in  the  same  direction,  passing  Puerto  Cana 
on  the  Itilla  :  thereafter  its  direction  is  unknown. 
The  geological  formation  of  these  hills  and  the 
known  outcroppings  of  others,  probably  allied,  to 
the  south  and  south-east,  is  older  than  that  of  the 
Eastern  Cordillera  of  the  Andes  ;  they  probably 
constitute  the  remains  of  the  north-western  part  of 
the  old  plana  alto,  which,  in  remote  geological  times. 


THE  LLANOS  AND  THE  SELVAS  239 

when  the  Amazon  before  its  reversal  flowed  into 
an  East  Andean  sea,  was  the  predominant  feature 
of  the  topography  of  South  America.  ^ 

From  San  Jose,  a  trocha  of  i6  leagues  through 
the  virgin  forest,  traversable  only  on  foot,  and  usually 
taking  four  or  five  days,  leads  to  Calamar,  a  port 
on  the  River  Unilla,  and  the  rubber  centre  of  the 
region.  The  ground  here  is  level  and  crossed  by 
an  infinity  of  brooks  that  during  the  dry  season, 
which  lasts  only  three  months,  dry  up  completely. 
It  is  at  this  epoch  that  the  rubber-gatherers  come 
out  of  the  montaha  with  the  rubber  they  have  col- 
lected, fleeing  to  escape  thirst.  The  "  winter  "  or 
rainy  season  lasts  from  April  to  November  without 
interruption — the  rivers  rise  incredibly,  inundating 
three-fourths  of  the  region,  which  is  consequently 
extremely  unhealthy,  with  very  sudden  changes  of 
temperature,  dropping  from  ioo°  in  the  daytime  to 
72°  at  night.  There  are,  in  addition  to  the  heathen 
Indians  of  the  vicinity,  about  400  rubber-gatherers 
or  caucheros  who  make  Calamar  their  headquarters. 
These  are  nearly  all  Tolimenses  who  have  migrated 
from  the  Caguan  (a  tributary  of  the  Caquetd),  which 
they  abandoned  after  exhausting  the  black  rubber 
there  :  they  are  like  a  devastating  horde,  destroying 
the  trees  as  they  advance  onwards  to  the  Rio  Negro  : 
it  is  believed  that  the  rubber  in  these  regions  will 
not  last  them  five  years  more.  It  is  only  the  black 
rubber,  caucho  negro,  that  they  exploit,  and  this 
they  do  by  cutting  down  the  tree,  which  then  yields 
25  to  75  pounds  of  rubber.  The  elsewhere  more 
prized  hevea  or  siringa,  the  Para  rubber,  and  balata, 
a  kind  of  guttapercha,  are  found  as  isolated  trees, 
one  to  the  acre  or  less,  throughout  the  region,  but 
these,    which   they   could   only   exploit   by   the   slow 

'  See  "  Some  Factors  of  Geographical  Distribution  in  South 
America,"  by  John  D.  Haseman  {Annals  of  the  New  York  Academy  of 
Science,  1912,  vol.  xxii.,  9-1 12). 


240  COLOMBIA 

process  of  tapping,  they  do  not  touch.  These 
caucheros,  not  5  per  cent,  of  whom  can  read  or 
write,  are  hardy  workers  and  energetic,  withal 
orderly  and  submissive  to  the  authorities,  but  usually 
heavily  indebted  to   the  traders. 

The  Unilla  (in  many  maps  it  is  erroneously  attri- 
buted to  the  Guaviare)  forms,  with  the  Itilla,  the 
Vaupes  River,  which  was  first  mapped  in  1907  by 
Dr.  Hamilton  Rice.  Since  then  rubber  exploitation 
and  the  incident  commercial  development  have  been 
going  on  apace.  Along  the  Vaupes  and  the  nearby 
Apoporis  (chief  tributary  of  the  Caqueta)  are  many 
well-organized  rubber  enterprises  :  the  settlers 
"  own  "  enormous  areas  of  forest,  which  they  ex- 
ploit, and  some  have  at  their  command  numerous 
tribes  of  intelligent,  robust,  and  industrious  Indians, 
and  are  accordingly  enabled  thereby  to  get  the 
rubber  that  can  only  be  secured  by  bleeding,  the 
Para,  balata,  and  other  varieties.  The  Indians  in 
this  section,  in  contrast  to  that  controlled  or  menaced 
by  the  Peruvians  to  the  south,  appear  to  be  well 
treated.  The  trade  of  this  region  is  entirely  vi^ 
the  Rio  Negro  to  Manaos  on  the  Amazon  ;  the 
annual  production  of  rubber  is  about  125,000  pounds, 
in  exchange  for  which  large  quantities  of  merchandise 
and  fire-arms  are  imported  from  Brazil.  The  land 
of  the  Vaupes  territory  is  of  fair  quality  ;  some 
little  agriculture  is  being  developed  ;  the  climate 
is  far  from  being  as  bad  as  the  generality  of  the 
Amazon  belt  ;  the  temperature  is  more  uniform,  and 
the  river  is  "  black  water." 

In  this  unending  tropic  wilderness  it  is  of  prime 
importance  whether  the  river  waters  be  "  aguas 
negras  "  or  "  aguas  claras."  The  former,  even  when 
swollen  by  the  rains,  appear  almost  black  when  seen 
in  mass,  and  they  coincide  with  or  cause  an  absence 
of  mosquitoes  and  generally  a  more  healthful 
locality  ;    their  waters,  free  from  alligators  and  the 


THE   LLANOS   AND   THE   SELVAS     241 

bloodthirsty  little  cannibal  fish,  the  caribe,  contaui 
less  organic  matter  and  are  purer.  Many  theories 
have  been  advanced  as  to  the  cause  of  the  pheno- 
menon of  "  black  "  water.  In  Vargas  Vergara's 
opinion,  the  colour  is  due  to  some  special  plant 
which  tints  the  water  and  is  not  decomposed  owing 
to  the  absence  of  certain  mineral  salts  which,  when 
present,  immediately  destroy  the  colouration  ;  among 
the  natives  the  general  opinion  is  that  this  plant 
is  the  sarsaparilla. 

From  the  Itilla  (headstream  of  the  Vaupes),  com- 
munication is  had  by  trochas  with  the  banks  of  the 
Macaya,  which,  uniting  with  the  Ajaju  at  a  point 
called  Corinto,  forms  the  Apoporis,  a  river  of  great 
width  and  depth  in  the  rainy  season,  but  six  chorros 
or  cascades  before  it  empties  into  the  Caqueta  pre- 
vent navigation.  The  Ajaju  was  recently  explored 
by  the  comisario  of  the  Vaupes  territory  ;  going 
up  it  for  four  days,  he  reports  it  to  be  a  beautiful 
river,  totally  different  from  the  others  of  the  region, 
flowing  in  majestic  curves  at  which  appear  enormous 
and  fantastic  cliffs  standing  out  like  ruins  of  feudal 
castles.  The  most  promising  of  the  regions  in  this 
vicinity,  however,  is  that  of  the  Mesaya  River,  where 
broad  savannahs  and  high  ground  appear  to  offer 
exceptional  advantages  for  settlers,  and  where,  ac- 
cordingly, the  Government  is  now  planning  to  found 
an  agricultural  colony. 

Following  the  Apoporis  downstream,  we  reach  the 
Caqueta  River,  a  direct  and  important  tributary  of 
the  Amazon,  into  which  it  flows  in  Brazilian  terri- 
tory. Such  little  geographical  knowledge  of  the 
stream  and  of  its  twin  brother,  the  Putumayo,  to  the 
south,  as  the  Spanish  missionaries  and  some  Pasto 
traders  before  1830  had  possessed  had  been  lost, 
until  1876,  when  an  intrepid  young  Colombian,  seek- 
ing a  cheaper  outlet  for  the  cinchona  bark  which 
his    firm    was    then    collecting   on    the   slopes   of    the 

17 


242  COLOMBIA 

Andes  near  Pasto,  boldly  launched  his  canoe  on  the 
waters  of  the  Putumayo  and  floated  downstream  for 
more  than  a  thousand  miles,  braving  unknown  terrors, 
till  at  length  he  attained  the  giant  Amazon.  This 
was  Rafael  Reyes,  later  President  of  Colombia.  He 
followed  up  his  exploit  by  establishing  steam  naviga- 
tion on  the  Putumayo,  of  which,  in  the  following 
year,  Crevaux,  the  daring  French  explorer,  took 
advantage,  ascending  and  roughly  mapping  the  Putu- 
mayo ;  thence,  crossing  the  short  intervening  land,  he 
descended  by  the  Caqueta,  being  the  first  white  man 
since  the  Spanish  days  to  traverse  its  entire  length, 
and  enriching  geographical  literature  by  a  most 
interesting   narrative    of    his    journey. 

With  the  decline  of  the  quina  trade,  the  Caqueta 
and  Putumayo  were  again  completely  abandoned, 
until  a  few  years  ago  the  advancing  prices  of  rubber 
once  again  drew  commercial  adventurers  to  their 
shores.  The  numerous  tribes  of  dreaded  Indians 
who  roamed  the  unknown  forests  were  subjugated,  in 
the  manner  of  the  conquistadores  of  yore,  by  bare 
handfuls  of  men.  On  the  Putumayo  and  its  tribu- 
taries, a  single  firm  of  Peruvians  later  gained  con- 
trol of  the  situation,  ruthlessly  seized  the  fruits  of 
the  first  painful  steps  and  arduous  labours  of  the 
Colombian  conquerors  (upon  whom,  however,  little 
sympathy  need  be  wasted),  and  then,  in  lust  of  the 
black  gold,  rubber,  began  enslaving,  pillaging,  tor- 
turing, and  massacring  their  poor  victims,  until  at 
last  belated  reports,  confirmed  by  Sir  Roger  Case- 
ment's revelations,  horrified  the  civilized  world  and 
aroused  a  widespread  indignation,  now  lulled  by  the 
joint  action  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
sending  Consuls  to  further  investigate,  and  receiving 
the  promise  of  Peru  to  punish  the  perpetrators  of 
the  atrocities.  It  is  more  than  doubtful  whether  the 
real  culprits,  the  men  "  higher  up,"  will  ever  receive 
their  deserts.      One  vital   point  seems   to  have  been 


THE   LLANOS   AND   THE   SELVAS     243 

almost  ignored  in  all  European  and  North  American 
newspaper  discussion  of  the  atrocities,  and  that  is, 
that  the  region  in  question  lies  within  the  "  twilight 
zone,"  where  contending  boundaries  overlap,  and 
where  jurisdiction  is  claimed  by  disputing  nations, 
but  can  be  effectively  exercised  by  none  without 
precipitating  a  war.i 

The  victims  have  not  remained  entirely  passive. 
Both  here  and  on  the  Caqueta  vengeance  is  occa- 
sionally wreaked  by  the  despoiled  and  wronged 
Indians  against  their  "  white  "  oppressors,  many  of 
whom  have  paid  with  their  lives  the  attempt  to  im- 
plant slavery  anew.  The  Indian  works  by  force  only, 
and  the  whites  are  consequently  obliged  to  be  con- 
stantly in  a  state  of  military  tension  and  alertness. 
"If,  for  a  single  night,  guard  were  not  kept  in  any 
of  the  sections  I  know,"  writes  the  comisario  of  the 
lower  Caqueta,  in  a  recent  report,  "  and  the  fire- 
arms were  carelessly  left  within  reach  of  the  natives, 
in  a  few  hours  not  a  single  white  would  be  left  in 
those  regions."  Catholic  missionaries  alone  seem 
able  to  cope  with  the  problem  of  reducing  to  civiliza- 
tion, or  even  to  peaceful  relations,  tribes  that  have 
once  been  aroused  to  hostility  against  the  whites. 

iWith  the  missionaries  serving  as  an  advance- 
guard,  the  interesting  question  arises.  What  com- 
mercial development,  if  any,  can  be  looked  for  in  this 
region?    But  first,  let  us  see  the  present  state  of  trade. 

The  Putumayo  is  easily  navigable  in  its  lower 
course  at  all  seasons,  and  in  its  upper  to  very  near 
the  Andes.  The  proximity  of  its  headwaters  to  Pasto 
furnishes  the  opportunity  for  a  slight  trade  with 
that  city,  but  practically  all  its  rubber  goes  out 
through  the  Amazon,  and  its  goods  come  in  by  the 
same  route.     As  for  the  Caqueta  River,  there  is  an 

'  See  the  author's  article  in  the  Evening  Post  (N.Y.),  August  28, 
1912.  And  see  The  Times'  South  African  Supplement,  April  29, 1913, 
which  has  appeared  since  this  volume  went  to  press. 


244  COLOMBIA 

enormous  difference  in  the  volume  of  its  water  at 
the  dry  season  and  at  the  rainy  season,  and  it  happens 
that  it  is  in  the  dry  season  that  steamers  are  most 
needed  for  the  rubber  trade.  At  best,  the  Caqueta 
is  not  yet  a  useful  highway.  In  the  Brazilian  part 
its  channel  is  only  just  beginning  to  be  known  ; 
in  the  Colombian  part  pilots  will  have  to  be  trained, 
soundings  made,  and  other  difficulties  learned  and 
overcome  before  regular  navigation  can  be  under- 
taken in  safety.  Moreover,  the  Araracuara  Rapids 
(there  is  a  fearful  picture  in  Crevaux's  book  showing 
his  frail  canoe  dashing  down  some  falls  at  an  angle  of 
forty-five  degrees  between  rocky  walls)  divide  the 
navigation  of  the  river  into  two  parts.  The  lower  river 
necessarily  trades,  therefore,  with  Brazil  :  the  Colom- 
bian frontier  is  twenty  days'  steaming  from  Manaos. 
The  colonists  of  the  upper  river  and  its  branches, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  being  no  near  prospect 
whatever  of  getting  by  the  rapids,  must  necessarily 
cultivate  commercial  relations  with  the  Colombian 
Departments  of  Huila  and  Nariiio.  There  is  a  trail 
from  Pasto  to  Mocoa,  an  old-established  town  long 
used  as  a  penal  settlement,  20  miles  distant  from 
the  Putumayo,  and  separated  from  the  Caqueta  by 
a  low  line  of  hills.  A  new  mule-road,  on  which  the 
Government  has  been  doing  excellent  work  of  late, 
5  5  miles  long,  from  Guadalupe,  in  the  southern  part 
of  Huila,  crosses  the  divide  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera 
to  Florencia,  near  the  Orteguasa  branch  of  the 
Caqueta,  the  last  hamlet  before  entering  the  selvas. 
The  Government  has  also  been  extending  other  means 
of  communication  ;  the  telegraph  has  just  been 
established    to    Sibundoy. 

Mr.   Leo  E.   Miller,   of  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural    History,    writes  :• 

"  Florencia  is  a  small  town,  with  a  few  hundred  inhabitants,  but 
growing  rapidly.  Altitude  675  feet.  The  whole  Department  of  the 
Caquita  contains  but  two  thousand  souls,  according  to  the  alcalde 


THE   LLANOS   AND   THE   SELVAS     245 

of  Florencia,  not  including  Indians.     Provisions  can    be   had   at 
Florencia,  but  prices  of  everything  but  meat  and  corn  very  high. 

"  Our  first  work  was  done  a  short  distance  above  the  town,  at  an 
elevation  of  i,ooo  feet,  at  the  ranch  of  one  Don  Bias.  .  .  .  The 
clearing  was  the  largest  I  had  seen  in  this  locality,  there  being 
pasture,  platanal,  cacao,  and  corn.  In  this  open  country  birds  were 
abundant.  The  surrounding  forest  was  comparatively  open,  and 
not  far  away.  From  the  elevated  position  one  has  a  good  view  of 
the  Caqueta,  a  perfect  ocean  of  forest  stretching  out  ahead  as  far  as 
the  eye  can  see,  which  on  clear  days  is  many  miles.  The  sight  is 
most  impressive.  There  is  not  a  single  rise  visible  and  the  forest  is 
of  uniform  height. 

"  The  forest  is  comparatively  open,  that  is,  free  from  dense 
undergrowth.  Trees  tall,  few  tree-ferns  :  many  climbing  lilies  and 
also  many  palms.  Not  much  moss.  Along  the  streams  there  is 
much  bamboo  and  also  wild  cane,  often  mixed  with  dense  clumps 
of  creepers,  tall  grass,  and  thorny  bushes.  In  places  there  are 
small  clumps,  perhaps  a  few  acres  in  extent,  of  dense  low  trees 
resembling  '  cecropas '  and  called  '  restrojo.'  Streams  and  rivers 
are  numerous,  and  one  is  at  once  impressed  with  their  large  size 
and  depth.  Also,  while  swift,  they  are  so  silent  that  one  may  be 
near  a  large  river  and  not  know  its  presence  until  at  the  very 
edge. 

"  Clouds  hang  low,  often  descending  to  the  ground,  especially  in 
the  early  morning  and  late  night,  causing  a  dense  fog. 

"  We  happened  to  strike  the  country  in  the  height  of  the  rainy 
season  :  but  there  were  frequently  intervals  of  three  bright  days 
with  not  a  drop  of  rain.  On  the  other  days  the  showers,  which 
were  heavy,  were  confined  to  the  early  morning,  the  afternoon  after 
4  p.m.,  and  night.  It  rarely  rained  all  day  long.  About  4  p.m.  a 
cool  wind  invariably  sprang  up.  At  noon  the  heat  was  rather 
intense,  but  not  nearly  so  great  as  in  the  Magdalena  Valley  (as  I  now 
discover)  below  Neiva.  The  nights  were  cold,  so  that  two  blankets 
were  none  too  many.  The  expedition  was  without  a  thermometer, 
so  no  observations  as  to  temperatures  could  be  made.  It  is  said 
that  during  the  dry  season  (December,  January,  and  February)  the 
heat  is  terrific  and  there  is  much  fever  owing  to  the  clouds  of 
mosquitoes  that  emerge  from  the  pools  left  by  the  receding  water." 

Colombia  claims  a  part  of  the  Napo  River,  and 
also  claims  to  bound  on  the  Amazon  itself  for  a 
distance  of  600  miles,  but  in  these  regions,  to  the 
south  of  the  Putumayo,  she  has  never  had  commercial 
relations,   nor   thither  dispatched  colonists,   nor  ever 


246  COLOMBIA 

been  able  either  to  exercise  or  even  to  attempt 
effective  jurisdiction.  On  the  other  hand,  adverse 
claims  to  the  Putumayo  and  the  Caqueta  are  raised 
against  her. 

Confining  ourselves  specifically  to  the  region  north 
of  the  Putumayo  (and  even  that  hardly  seems  worth 
fighting  for  from  the  present-day  standpoint,  except 
that  the  nation's  honour  is  involved  in  maintaining 
the  nation's  territorial  integrity),  what  future 
has  it? 

The  question  is  part  of  the  larger  one  which  Mr. 
Bryce  discusses  in  his  recent  work  on  South 
America,!  "  Can  these  Amazonian  selvas,  which  form 
the  largest  unoccupied  fertile  space  on  the  earth's 
surface,  be  reclaimed  for  the  service  of  man? 

"  This  question  is  not  a  practical  one  for  our 
generation,  and  I  mention  it  only  because  it  raises 
an  interesting  problem,  the  solution  of  which  will 
one  day  be  attempted,  since  so  vast  and  so  fertile 
an  area  cannot  be  left  for  ever  useless." 

One  must  agree  with  Mr.  Bryce  that  the  nation, 
not  being  great  or  wealthy,  cannot  attempt  the  thing 
itself  on  a  large  scale,  and  that  it  is  doubtful  whether 
capitalists  from  other  countries  will  embark  on  such 
an  enterprise,  which  could  hardly  be  carried  out 
except  by  the  aid  of  a  Government.  But  I  think 
Mr.  Bryce  is  inclined  to  exaggerate  the  difficulties 
when  he  writes  :  "If  attempted  at  all,  it  must  be 
on  a  large  scale,  for  such  gradual  colonization  by 
settlers  coming  in  small  groups,  as  would  be  the 
natural  process  in  the  temperate  regions,  is  scarcely 
possible  in  a  country  where  man  has  so  powerful  a 
nature  to  overcome."  It  is  a  little  obscure  whether 
Mr.  Bryce  is  referring  to  the  colonization  of  the 
whole  selva  region,  or  simply  to  the  reclamation  of 
the  lower  lands  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  Cer- 
tainly, as  far  as  the  Colombian  selvas  are  concerned, 

'  P.  560,  seq. 


THE   LLANOS   AND   THE   SELVAS     247 

there  is  considerable  land  that  escapes  inundation 
and  that  would  be  suitable  for  tropical  agriculture  ; 
other  forest  products  besides  rubber  could  and 
probably  will  be  exploited,  with  increased  navigation 
facilities.  The  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  has 
taught  us  for  all  time  that  far  worse  pest -holes  in 
the  tropics  than  the  Caquetd  territory  can  be  sani- 
tated and  made  habitable  for  the  white  man.  Even 
without  resources  approaching  those  at  the  command 
of  Dr.  Gorgas  and  his  colleagues,  and  on  a  small 
scale,  provided  a  fair  degree  of  intelligence  be  exer- 
cised, malaria  can  be  held  in  check.  With  malaria 
held  in  check,  man  would  be  well  able  to  cope 
with  the  power  of  Nature.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  heat,  the  long  rainy  season,  and  the  over-exuber- 
ance of  vegetation  are  any  more  powerful  natural 
obstacles  than  the  rigours  of  a  North-west  winter. 
No  striking  advance,  no  stupendous  development 
of  the  kind  occasionally  predicted  in  the  fantasies 
of  some  Colombian  prophets,  need  be  looked  forward 
to  by  this  or  the  coming  generation.  No  very  large 
undertakings  are  likely  for  some  time  to  come  to 
spring  up  in  the  Caqueta,  but  as  enterprising  men 
will  ever  be  lured  on  by  the  great  rewards  that  meet 
great  exertions,  one  can  look  to  see  a  gradual 
development,  slow,  it  is  true,  but  progressive,  by 
just  such  colonization  by  settlers  from  adjacent  parts 
of  Colombia,  and  occasional  foreigners,  as  Mr.  Bryce 
deems  "  scarcely  possible." 


CHAPTER   XVI 
EDUCATION   AND   THE   INTELLECTUAL   LIFE 

We  have  seen  how  Httle  material  progress  Colombia 
has  made,  how  undeveloped  is  her  natural  wealth,  how 
trackless  her  wildernesses,  how  unbridged  and  un- 
railroaded  her  territory,  how  untilled  her  fertile  fields. 
But  a  nation's  poverty  may  be  pardoned  her,  if  it 
be  the  ascetic  poverty  that  goes  with  an  intense 
devotion  to  things  of  the  intellect  or  things  of  the 
soul.  Can  Colombia  plead  in  extenuation  at  the  bar 
of  the  world  that,  withal  her  land  be  much  as  Nature 
left   it,   she  has  not   neglected  the  higher   realms? 

She  can — and  she  cannot.  A  small  intellectual 
coterie,  an  elite,  has  marched  with  the  vanguard  of 
the  arts  and  letters  of  the  modern  Spanish  world, 
but,  alas  !  at  the  expense  or  to  the  neglect  of  the 
masses.  It  is  said  that  70  per  cent,  of  Colombia's 
population  is  illiterate,  can  neither  read  nor  write. 
Education  !  We  might  almost  be  justified  in  brush- 
ing the  word  angrily  aside,  saying,  "  Education  ! 
there  is  no  education  in  Colombia."  But  after  years  of 
dire  abandonment  there  are  increasing  evidences  that 
the  nation  is  now,  in  fact,  awakening  to  her  edu- 
cational needs,  not  merely  vaguely  generalizing 
about  them  with  sonorous  phrases.  Tangible  evi- 
dence is  furnished  by  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
educational  institutions  and  in  the  number  of  pupils, 
increased  appropriations,  and  practical  proposals  for 
pension   funds   for  teachers.      The   teacher's  salaries, 

248 


EDUCATION  249 

though  still  pitiably  small,  are  at  least  being  paid 
regularly.  It  is  of  little  value  to  examine  the  old 
statistics  or  figures  that  serve  as  such.  The  public 
or  common  school  system,  which  began  to  develop 
in  the  seventies,  later  received  a  serious  set-back, 
partly  because  of  revolutions,  partly  because  of 
political  hostilities,  and  is  only  now  again  coming 
to  the  front.  The  comparative  statistics  for  191 1  and 
1 9 1 2  show  a  great  stride  forward  :  ^ 

1 911.  1912.  Increase. 

Number  of  Educational  Insti- 
tutions of  every  kind  (public 
and  private) 4,070  4,37i  301 

Number  of  Students 245,839  272,873  27,034 

Under  the  Constitution,  attendance  on  the  pubUc 
schools  is  gratuitous,  but  not  obligatory.  The  public 
schools  throughout  the  country,  and  to  a  limited 
extent  private  and  clerical  institutions  which  receive 
aid  from  the  Government,  are  under  the  supreme 
direction  and  inspection  of  the  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction,  one  of  the  Cabinet  officers.  In  each 
department  there  is  a  Director-General  of  Public 
Instruction  under  his  direct  supervision.  Primary 
instruction,  however,  appertains  to  the  departments 
and  municipalities,  which  have  to  supply  the  buildings 
and  furniture  and  pay  the  salaries  of  the  teachers, 
while  the  National  Government  provides  the  text- 
books, supplies,  and  appliances.  Appropriations  by 
the  departments  and  municipalities  are  comparatively 
generous  only  in  Antioquia,  Caldas,  and  Valle,  which 
form  a  notable  exception  to  the  rest  of  the  country  : 
in  these  three,  save  in  remoter  isolated  regions,  prac- 
tically all  the  children  are  now  going  to  the  elemen- 
tary schools,  and  at  least  learning  to  read  and  write. 
Were  this  the  case  throughout  the  country,  one  might 

'  The  figures  given  for  1907  were  382,683  students,  but  they  are  of 
doubtful  reliability. 


250  COLOMBIA 

be  well  content  for  the  time  being,  as  it  would  be 
asking  too  much,  in  view  of  the  general  lack  of 
means,  to  expect  any  very  high  order  of  instruction, 
any  modernized  methods  or  up-to-date  apparatus— 
anything  more  than  a  teacher  and  a  place  wherein  to 
teach.  School  equipment  is  generally  insufficient  and 
defective  ;  the  unsanitary  slate,  for  instance,  is  still 
in  use,  without  apparently  a  thought  of  abolishing 
it.  The  elements  of  hygiene,  which  more  than  any- 
thing need  to  be  drilled  into  the  Colombian  prole- 
tariat, are  not  taught  even  by  example — the  same 
unhygienic  conditions  are  allowed  to  prevail  in  the 
schoolhouses  as  outside  of  them,  in  spite  of  an 
elaborate  sanitary  code  for  schools. 

Point  one  to  be  taken  into  account  in  considering 
the  intellectual  life  of  Colombia  :  the  clergy  largely 
dominate  the  educational  system.  The  fundamental 
law  provides  "  Public  education  shall  be  organized 
and  directed  in  concordance  with  the  Catholic 
religion."  However  much  complete  separation  of 
Church  and  State  might  be  desirable  under  other 
conditions,  in  the  existing  state  of  affairs  the  co- 
operation of  the  Church  in  matters  educational  seems 
essential.  The  missionaries  alone  can  properly  under- 
take instruction  both  among  the  savage  Indians  and 
those  peaceful  and  civilized  tribes  like  the  Paez 
of  Tierra  Adentro  in  the  Cauca,'  who  have  not  yet 
been  completely  Hispanicized,  and  the  financial 
support  by  the  Government  of  the  missions  is  amply 
justified.  Even  the  most  ardent  enemies  of  the 
religious  orders  must  admit  that  they  are  doing  good 
work,  with  a  rare  degree  of  self-sacrifice  and  abne- 
gation, in  establishing  and  maintaining  schools  among 
the  heathen.     For  this,  they  have  devised  an  admir- 

'  For  interesting  studies  of  this  race  and  their  region,  see  H. 
Pittier  de  Fabrega  :  Ethnographic  and  Linguistic  Notes  on  the  Paez 
Indians  (Lancaster,  Pa.,  1907),  and  E.  Bizot  in  Revista  del  Ministerio 
de  Obras  Piiblicas,  November,  1909,  p.  817. 


RURAL   SCHOOL. 


A   FAVOURITE   PASTIME. 


EDUCATION 


251 


able  system  of  orfelitiatos,  as  in  the  Goajiro,  where 
they  take  young  children  as  Internes  and  train  them 
for  a  civilized  life. 

Side  by  side  with  the  public  schools  in  the  larger 
towns  flourish  parochial  schools  taught  by  priests 
and  nuns  and  a  few  private  schools.  It  is  to  these, 
though  their  general  level  is  little,  if  any,  better 
than  the  public  schools,  that  the  well-to-do  classes 
preferentially  send  their  children.  The  attendance  is 
small  in  comparison  with  the  public  schools.  The 
detailed  statistics  for  1 9 1 2  of  the  primary  schools 
are  as  follows  : 


Department. 

Number  of 
Schools. 

Nuinber  of 
Pupils. 

Percentage  of 

the  Total 

Population. 

Antioquia 
Atlantico 

Bolivar 

Boyaca  

Caldas 

Cauca     

Cundinamarca  ... 

Huila      

Magdalena 

Narino    ... 

Norte  de  Santander     . 

Santander 

Tolima 

Valle       

649 

208 

346 

248 

138 
563 
124 
104 
176 
153 
389 
206 
225 

54,263 

4,273 

11,871 

17,577 
24,556 

9,382 
27,027 

7,589 

4.614 
15,103 
10,566 
14,614 

9,062 
18,915 

7-31 
371 
277 
2-95 
7-59 

4'43 
375 
477 
3-6i 
5-33 
5-i6 
3-65 
3-19 
8-i6 

Private  schools            

3,656 

354 

229,422 
13.584 

4,010 

243,006 

5-15' 

The  primary  schools  are,  of  course,  a  heavy  drain 
on  the  financial  resources  of  the  local  governments. 
The  appropriations  of  the  departments  in    1 9 1 2  for 

*  In  the  United  States,  19-62  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  enrolled 
in  the  schools  (1908). 


252 


COLOMBIA 


educational  objects  in  comparison  with  their  total 
appropriations  for  all  branches  of  the  public  service 
are  shown  by  the  following  table,  which  also  gives 
the  total  appropriations  of  the  municipalities  for 
education    ( 191  2)  : 


Departments. 

Total 
Appropria- 
tions. 

School 
Budget. 

Percentage 
of  Total 
Budget. 

School  Budgets 
of  Municipalities. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

Antioquia 

1.455.763 

433.320 

2977 

83,610.54 

Atlantico       

217,560 

33.830 

I5'54 

16,072.00 

Bolivar          

548,728 

191,218 

34'84 

— 

Boyaca          

640,331 

1^3.285 

17-69 

67,602.20 

Caldas           

466,312 

132,764 

28-47 

30,359.20 

Cauca            

155.295 

41.3^2 

26-60 

16,053.74 

Cundinamarca 

766,950 

136,612 

17-58 

104,850.34 

Huila 

152,400 

41,020 

26-97 

— 

Magdalena 

195.194 

39,210 

20-08 

— 

Nariiio 

73^.325' 

226,742' 

30-71 

13,972.80 

Norte  de    Santander 

218,340 

61,464 

28-15 

28,855.21 

Santander     

429,664 

122,594 

28-55 

40,822.93 

Tolima          

395.843 

82,764 

20-90 

22,961.65 

Valle 

607,804 

153.483 

25-23 

30,167.70 

The  secondary  schools,  called  colegios,  both 
public  and  private,  are  generally  well  housed  but 
are  insufficient  in  number  and  often  too  small  to 
admit  all  who  apply.  They  are  found,  as  a  rule, 
only  in  the  larger  or  the  older  towns.  There  are 
229  of  these  high  schools,  many  of  which  character- 
istically bear  the  names  of  saints — San  Simon,  Santa 
Librada,  San  Pedro  Claver,  etc.  The  total  atten- 
dance is  18,802.  The  largest  are  those  of  San 
Bartolome  and  the  School  of  Commerce,  in  Bogotd, 
each  with  over  600  students. 

How  are  the  teachers  taught?  is  always  perhaps  the 
most  interesting  question  in  any  school  system.  The 
incumbents  of  posts  in  the  high  schools  are  usually 
graduates   of   the   universities   or   theological   semin- 

'  Silver. 


EDUCATION  253 

aries.  The  primary  school  teachers  are  graduated 
from  the  normal  schools,  of  which  there  are  9  for 
males  and  1 2  for  females  throughout  the  country, 
with  a  total  attendance  of  1,184  pupils.  They  are 
run  at  a  cost  of  only  $176,732  per  annum.  The 
conclusion  is  obvious.  The  course  of  instruction  is 
five  years,  comprising  Religion  and  Sacred  History, 
Spanish,  Reading,  Arithmetic,  Geometry,  Writing, 
Drawing,  Music,  two  years  of  French,  two  years  of 
English,  Rhetoric,  Pedagogy,  Bookkeeping,  Algebra, 
History,  and  only  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  years  a 
smattering  of  the  Natural  Sciences  (physics,  zoology, 
botany,  physiology  and  hygiene,  mineralogy), 
attempted  to  be  taught  without  laboratories  or 
appliances.  The  curriculum  for  males  and  females 
is  practically  the  same,  the  women  getting  a  little 
embroidery  and   domestic   economy. 

The  university  education,  meagre  and  unsatisfac- 
tory as  it  is  in  some  directions,  is  head  and  shoulders 
superior  to  the  school  education,  and  its  real  ex- 
cellence along  favoured  lines  enables  us  to  under- 
stand the  surprising  degree  of  literary  culture  to  be 
found  in  the  upper  strata  of  life  in  Colombia. 

The  institutions  of  higher  learning  are  the  National 
University  at  Bogota,  the  departmental  universities 
at  Cartagena,  Medellin,  Popayan,  and  Pasto,  the 
school  of  mines  at  Medellin,  the  great  sanctuary 
of  classical  learning,  the  College  of  Nuestra  Serlora 
del  Rosario  at  Bogota,  founded  in  1654  for  the 
teaching  of  theology  and  medicine  (now  dropped), 
jurisprudence  and  the  religious  philosophy  of  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas,  in  which  tradition  it  has  consistently 
followed.  The  departmental  universities  are  some- 
what rudimentary,  the  largest  being  that  at  Carta- 
gena with  243  students  in  three  faculties — law, 
medicine,  and  philosophy.  At  the  university  of  the 
Cauca,  a  historic  institution  in  Popayan,  an  attempt 
has    recently    been    made    to    start    an    agricultural 


254  COLOMBIA 

school,  a  French  professor  being  appointed  to  the 
faculty,  but  only  a  handful  of  pupils  have  enrolled. 
The  chief  reason  for  the  slight  importance  of  the 
departmental  institutions  is  the  preponderating  desir- 
ability, both  from  its  cultural  superiority  and  as 
opening  an  avenue  to  political  preferment  later  in 
life,  of  the  National  University  at  the  capital,  to 
which  students  from  all  departments  are  attracted. 
At  this  institution  there  are  '  536  students,  232  at- 
tending the  law  school,  202  the  medical  school,  58 
the  school  of  mathematics  and  engineering,  and  44 
the  dental  school.  Not  more  than  25  or  30  per 
cent.,  however,  complete  their  studies,  but  the  atten- 
dance is  rapidly  increasing  ;  in  1906,  for  instance, 
there  were  only  ']^  students  in  the  law  school. 

To  complete  our  view  of  Colombian  higher  edu- 
cation, we  must  mention  the  art  school  and  the 
Conservatory  of  Music  of  Bogota,  both  of  which, 
due  to  the  national  bent  for  art  and  music,  do 
remarkably  good  work  considering  the  scanty 
resources    they    command. 

It  will  be  observed  from  this  summary  that  the 
natural  sciences  are  left  entirely  out  of  account  in 
the  education  of  Colombia  ;  barring  certain  courses 
necessarily  given  in  the  schools  of  medicine  and 
engineering,  the  study  of  natural  phenomena  is 
totally  neglected  ;  nowhere  can  courses  of  pure 
science  be  pursued.  This  neglect  of  the  sciences  in 
favour  of  the  humanities  in  early  life,  with  its  natural 
consequences  in  adult  years,  is  point  number  two 
to  be  borne  in  mind  in  considering  the  intellectual 
movement  in  Colombia.  Since  the  early  days  of 
Mutis,  Caldas,  Zea,  and  their  companions,  Colombia 
has  had  but  few  scientists  who  have  pursued  original 
researches  or  whose  names  even  have  travelled  out- 
side their  own  land  :  perhaps  the  only  two  are 
Triana,  an  eminent  and  useful  botanist,  who  rescued 

'  1912. 


EDUCATION  255 

Mutis's  work  from  rotting  in  Madrid,  and  Ezequiel 
Uricoechea,  a  Yale  graduate,  who  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  work  as  a  linguist  and  archaeologist.  As 
a  true  scientist,  too,  and  a  painstaking  and  noble 
one,  though  not  in  the  field  of  the  natural  sciences, 
we  must  place  Jose  Rufino  Cuervo,  who  died  last 
year  in  Paris,  a  most  learned  investigator  whose 
researches  into  the  history  of  the  Spanish  language 
and  literature  and  his  practical  work  as  a  lexico- 
grapher place  him  in  the  front  rank  of  philologists. 
It  is  significant,  however,  that  these  three  men  lived 
and  did  their  best  work  abroad.  There  are  Colom- 
bians to-day  who  have  done  and  are  doing  good 
work  in  their  own  country,  in  botany,  in  geology, 
in  archaeology,  men  like  Santiago  Cortes,  Tulio 
Ospina,  Carlos  Cuervo  Marquez,  Ernesto  Restrepo 
Tirado,  and  others,  but  they  are  a  mere  handful,  and 
it  must  be  confessed  that  the  intellectual  atmosphere 
is  not  stimulating  to  original  scientific  researches. 
It  is  a  fact  that  for  any  high  order  of  scientific  edu- 
cation students  must  go  abroad  ;  of  necessity,  few 
could  stand  the  expense,  and  of  the  few,  still  fewer 
will  have  the  strength  of  character  to  withstand  the 
temptations  incident  to  youth  and  luring  them  away 
from  serious  studies.  But  practically  none  are 
tempted  to  go  to  foreign  countries  for  scientific 
studies  (except  in  the  limited  fields  of  medicine  and 
engineering),  for  the  simple  reason  that  if  they 
returned  to  their  native  country  they  would  find  little 
scope  for  their  attainments.  And  so  the  vicious  circle 
is  completed. 

Another  defect,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  another 
phase  of  the  general  neglect  of  scientific  studies,  is 
the  absence  of  agricultural  colleges,  so  very  essen- 
tial in  an  agricultural  country,  and  the  paucity  of 
manual  training  and  technical  schools.'     The  Colom- 

'  The  only  manual  training  schools  of  any  importance  are  two  in 
Bogota,  run  by  the  Christian  Brothers  and  the  Salesian  Fathers,  and 
one  in  Medellin. 


256  COLOMBIA 

bian  native  is  not  deficient  in  natural  mechanical 
abilities  ;  when  "  caught  young,"  he  readily  learns 
to  handle  machinery,  and  many  of  the  Indians  possess 
a  hereditary  aptitude  for  some  rather  difficult  indus- 
tries—weaving, hat -making,  wood -carving,  and  even 
bridge-building.  But  they  need  to  be  taught  new 
methods  in  the  arts  and  crafts,  and  they  are  not. 

The  law  and  medical  faculties  of  the  National 
University  undoubtedly  represent  the  cream  of  edu- 
cation in  Colombia.  In  an  early  chapter  I  had 
occasion  to  remark  upon  the  aptitude  of  the  Colom- 
bian for  the  law.  He  seems  to  take  less  kindly  to 
medicine.  Nevertheless,  being  a  somewhat  less  com- 
petitive and  consequently  a  more  lucrative  profession 
for  the  generality,  medicine  attracts,  as  the  figures 
already  quoted  show,  almost  as  many  students  as 
the  law.  The  six  years'  course  in  Bogota  (I  am 
unable  to  speak  of  the  other  schools,  and  perhaps 
it  is  just  as  well)  appears,  as  far  as  a  layman  can 
judge,  to  be  thorough,  and  to  furnish  opportunities 
for  considerable  clinical  experience  in  the  hospitals 
under  professors  who  are  practitioners  of  good  repu- 
tation and  marked  ability.  The  annexe  hospitals, 
however,  as  the  doctors  themselves  are  the  first  to 
point  out,  need  improvement.  One  trouble  with  the 
school,  and  that  is  the  fault  of  the  Government  regu- 
lations and  not  of  the  faculty,  which  is  not  autono- 
mous, is  that  the  students  have  not  received  a 
sufficient  preparatory  education  prior  to  entering  the 
school.  The  institution  is  poorly  endowed,  and  it 
is  only  as  good  as  it  is  because  of  the  unselfish 
devotion  of  its  professors,  who,  busy  practitioners 
all,  receive  the  princely  salaries  of  $25  and  $45  a 
month   from   the  University  ! 

In  one  respect  the  training  in  the  medical  schools 
seems  decidedly  at  fault,  judged  by  its  results  as 
observed  in  the  rural  districts.  There  is  no  training 
in  professional  ethics.     Good  doctors  are  to  be  found 


EDUCATION  257 

only  in  the  largest  towns.  The  small  country  town 
is  either  without  a  practitioner  or  too  often  cursed 
with  a  bad  one.  The  country  practitioner  not  only 
seems  to  recognize  no  obligations  of  social  service, 
not  only  is  not  a  leader  in  the  crusade  which  the 
community  should  undertake  for  better  hygienic  con- 
ditions and  the  prevention  of  disease,  but  he  will 
often  add  to  a  stupid  carelessness  an  indifference  to 
the  calls  of  humanity  in  individual  cases,  neglect- 
ing the  poor,  and  even  when  summoned  by  the 
rich,  he  will  tarry  for  hours  in  his  own  pursuits 
instead  of  hastening  to  the  cries  of  agony.  Such  a 
state  of  affairs  reacts  to  the  detriment  of  the  pro- 
fession and  of  the  country  in  ways  that  are  perhaps 
not  realized.  The  respect  which  the  community 
should  have  for  the  doctor  is  diminished,  and  it  is 
especially  in  tropical  countries  that  the  influence  of 
the  medical  profession  should  be  preponderating  ; 
it  is  to  that  profession  that  the  first  steps  of  pro- 
gress must  be  confided  ;  it  is  the  doctor,  not  the 
lawyer  or  the  priest,  who  must  be  the  salvation  of 
the  country.  Again,  there  is  perhaps  no  greater 
deterrent  to  the  better  class  immigrant  in  this  twen- 
tieth century  than  the  fear,  not  of  tropical  disease, 
but  of  the  lack  of  proper  medical  attention  for  him- 
self, his  wife,  and  his  children. 

Of  far  more  influence,  actually,  on  both  the  general 
and  the  intellectual  life  of  the  community,  is  the 
journalist.  His  name  is  legion.  Our  narration  has 
so  far  been  tinged  with  sadness  in  the  contemplation 
of  lost  opportunities  ;  with  the  journalist  we 
approach  the  portals  of  Colombia's  one  great  temple 
— the  temple  of  literature — at  whose  shrine  we  can 
render  the  sincerest  tribute. 

Colombia's  periodicals  are  scarcely  w^i^spapers  ; 
they  are  for  the  most  part  ephemeral,  dependent  on 
the  personality  of  a  single  man,  and  published  for 
the   expression   merely   of   his   political  views.      Few 

18 


258  COLOMBIA 

in  the  country  have  had  an  existence  of  a  score  of 
years,  or  even  of  a  decade  ;  only  one  or  two  represent 
any  considerable  financial  investment.  The  typical 
newspaper,  poorly  printed  and  on  bad  paper,  will 
consist  of  four  pages,  of  which  two  are  for  adver- 
tising, including  legal  notices  ;  there  will  be  a  long 
political  editorial,  a  column  or  a  column  and  a 
half  of  foreign  cable  news  furnished  by  the  Govern- 
ment, some  telegrams,  which  everybody  in  town 
has  already  seen,  two  or  three  columns  devoted 
to  the  ventilation  of  some  correspondent's  personal 
grievances,  a  column  of  local  scraps,  and  a  half  a 
column  of  poetry.  From  a  purely  news  standpoint, 
the  best  daily  in  the  country  is  El  Nuevo  TiempOy 
of  Bogota,  which  contains  many  valuable  articles  and 
does  give  a  general  idea  of  the  state  of  the  country, 
besides  publishing  a  weekly  literary  supplement  of 
a  high  order  of  merit.  The  other  Bogota  papers, 
though  excellently  written  for  the  most  part,  are 
of  too  decidedly  political  a  cast  to  be  really  ranked 
as  newspapers.  Of  these,  El  Liberal,  the  organ  of 
the  Liberal  party  and  edited  by  its  leader,  General 
Rafael  Uribe-Uribe,  may  be  taken  as  the  best. 

Besides  the  general  absence  of  news,  two  defects 
chiefly  characterize  Colombian  periodicals — an  un- 
seemly violence  in  their  antipathies,  based  on  political 
opinions,  and,  where  political  prejudices  do  not  cloud 
vision,  a  somewhat  indiscriminating  and  complacent 
praise  and  lavish  overflow  of  compliments  for 
commonplace  achievements.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
main  merit  is  the  excellence  of  literary  composition. 
Though  substance  may  be  sometimes  lacking,  style 
is  not — a  certain  literary  finish,  a  piquancy,  charm, 
force,  and  vigour  of  expression  are  to  be  had.  It 
is  impossible  to  draw  the  line  where  journalism 
ends  and  literature  begins.  Colombia's  men  of 
letters  have  nearly  all  been  journalists  ;  much  of 
their  literary  work  has  appeared  in  the  newspapers. 


EDUCATION  259 

or  in  the  weekly  or  monthly  reviews  which  from 
time  to  time  see  the  light.  Many  of  the  reviews 
have  attained  high  literary  standards  :  notable 
among  them  have  been  El  Semanario,  conducted  by 
the  ardent  scientist,  Caldas,  just  prior  to  the  Inde- 
pendence, and  El  Papel  Periodico  Ilustrado  and  El 
Repertorio  Colombiano,  which  ran  for  a  few  years 
in  the  eighties.  Several  learned  societies  now  publish 
monthlies  or  occasional  periodicals  of  value,  notably 
those  of  the  Academy  of  Jurisprudence,  the  Agri- 
cultural Society,  the  medical,  engineering,  and  dental 
bulletins,  and,  perhaps  ranking  highest,  the  Boletin 
de  Historia  6  Antigaedades. 

To  do  complete  justice  to  the  excellence  of 
Colombian  literature,  as  it  has  shown  itself  in  the 
past  century,  is  impossible  in  a  limited  space,  and, 
moreover,  would  require  more  competent  hands  than 
the  present  writer's,  especially  as  there  is  no  collected 
history  of  it,  or  other  guide,  extant. i  The  fact  that 
the  limitations  of  space  or  of  my  own  knowledge 
permit  me  to  mention  only  a  few  writers  is  no 
disparagement   to    others. 

Although  printing-presses  were  of  late  introduc- 
tion into  New  Granada,-  even  the  Spanish  colonial 
epoch  was  not  without  some  literary  light.  A  diligent 
investigator,  Jose  Maria  Vergara,  painstakingly 
collated  the  history  of  the  literary  activities  of 
colonial  days  in  an  interesting  volume,3  which  shows 
conclusively  that  the  "  dark  ages  "  of  the  colonial 
period  were  not  as  black  as  they  have  been  repre- 
sented. The  great  conqueror,  Gonzalo  Jimenez  de 
Quesada,  was  himself  a  writer,  and  in  the  leisure 
days  of  his  old  age  wrote  the  history  of  his  conquests, 

'  Vergara's  Historia  de  la  liicratura  en  Colombia  is  devoted 
almost  exclusively  to  colonial  times. 

'  See  Jose  Toribio  Medina's  La  Intprenta  en  Bogota  and  La 
Imprenta  en  Cartagena  (Santiago,  Chile,  1904). 

3  Op.  cit. 


260  COLOMBIA 

but  the  manuscript,  although  made  use  of  by  sub- 
sequent writers  and  so  partially  filtering  down  to 
us,  has  been  lost.  Other  chroniclers  and  historians 
there  were  whom  fate  treated  better  ;  of  them,  the 
pious  Bishop  Piedrahita,  partially  of  Inca  descent, 
occupies  the  front  rank.  At  the  dawn  of  the  revolu- 
tion a  veritable  literary  and  scientific  renaissance 
took  place  ;  Narifio  was  the  leader  of  a  brilliant 
circle,  and  Zea  was  his  most  accomplished  associate 
and  fellow-sufferer  ;  Caldas,  the  scientist,  not  only 
himself  displayed  literary  ability  in  presenting  his 
scientific  investigations  and  setting  forth  know- 
ledge of  the  country  in  his  periodical  El  Semanario, 
but  inspired  numerous  others. 

It  is  not  along  scientific  lines,  as  the  reader  is 
already  aware,  that  we  must  look  for  Colombia's 
best  intellectual  achievements,  but  to  the  fields  of 
jurisprudence,  of  classical  literature,  history,  and 
belles  lettres. 

As  elsewhere,  perhaps  a  little  more  than  else- 
where, the  favourite  theme  of  Colombian  writers 
is  their  own  country.  In  the  paths  of  history,  for 
instance,  they  have  strayed  little,  and  that  little 
without  overmuch  success,  into  original  investigation 
of  other  lands  and  epochs.  But  there  is  a  brilliant 
galaxy  of  historians  dealing  with  their  own  land. 
Especially  noteworthy  are  Jose  Manuel  Restrepo 
(1782-1864),  an  aide-de-camp  and  secretary  of 
Bolivar,  who  wrote  a  detailed  account  of  the  revolu- 
tion against  Spain;  Joaquin  de  Acosta  (1800-52), 
who  wrote  a  masterly  and  at  once  entertaining  and 
veracious  history  of  the  discovery  and  conquest  of 
New  Granada,  based  on  original  sources,  the  old 
chronicles  and  manuscripts,  with  a  true  instinct  for 
separating  the  grain  from  the  chaff,  the  truth  from 
the  mass  of  superstitious  legends  and  exaggerations  : 
partly  covering  the  same  ground,  but  extending  over 
the  whole  epoch,  is  Plaza's  History  of  New  Granada, 


EDUCATION  261 

with  a  later  volume  bringing  the  narration  down  to 
1830.  Plaza  (1807-54)  is  a  careful  historian,  but 
his  style  is  somewhat  drier  than  Acosta's  lively  narra- 
tive. Another  monumental  work  devoted  to  colonial 
times,  though  chiefly  to  the  history  of  the  Church — 
the  author's  original  intention  was  to  confine  his  work 
exclusively  thereto — is  Groot's  Historia  eclesiastica 
y  civil  de  la  Nueva  Granada.  Groot  (1800-78) 
lacked  the  fluency  and  grace  of  pen  that  distinguishes 
most  Colombians.  He  was  a  devout  Catholic,  and 
his  work,  printing  copious  documentary  sources,  can 
therefore  be  read  as  an  antidote  to  those  historians 
who  are  inclined  to  attribute  all  Colombia's  troubles, 
in  both  colonial  and  modern  times,  to  the  dominance 
of  the  clergy.  His  defence  of  the  Jesuits  and  attack 
on  the  brusque  methods  of  their  expulsion  is  classical. 

For  modern  times  there  is  no  one  comprehensive 
historian,  but  there  is  a  host  of  biographies,  histories 
of  particular  events  or  administrations,  and  personal 
memoirs,  written  by  active  participants  in  the  events 
or  by  close  friends  and  followers.  Of  memoirs, 
the  most  noteworthy  are  Joaquin  Posada  Gutierrez' 
(i  797-1 879),  written  in  an  elegant  style.  What 
such  works  lose  in  scientific  carefulness,  absolute 
dependability,  and  detached  breadth  of  view,  they 
gain  in  literary  interest,  in  intensity  of  personality, 
and  corresponding  vivacity  and  vigour  of  style. 

Historical  investigations  continue  unabated.  A 
valuable  collection  of  reprints  and  original  histories 
published  at  various  dates  in  recent  years  and  con- 
taining many  works  of  high  excellence  is  the 
Biblioteca  de  historia  Nacional.  Much  of  the 
material,  then,  for  a  complete  history  of  Colombia  is 
at  hand,  but  the  old  bitter  party  traditions  still  live 
on  to  prevent  an  impartial  summing  up  of  the 
evidence.  Events  of  eighty  years  ago  are  still  live 
questions,  answered  more  often  by  political  partisans 
than  unbiassed  historians. 


262  COLOMBIA 

Much  keen  intellectual  activity  of  the  best  brains 
Colombia  has  produced  has  spent  itself  in  the  barren 
fields  of  petty  political  controversy.  The  *'  scholar 
in  politics  "  has  been  no  novelty  in  Colorhbia.  It 
has  been  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception  for  the 
highest  office  in  the  land  to  be  filled  by  men  of 
decided  literary  attainments.  Of  Colombia's  presi- 
dents, many  have  attained  high  rank  as  journalists 
or  authors,  Mariano  Ospina,  Manuel  Murillo  Toro, 
Carlos  Holguin,  Rafael  Nuiiez,  philosopher,  sceptic, 
and  poet,  Miguel  Antonio  Caro,  Jose  M.  Marroquin, 
classicist,  satirist,  and  novelist,  to  mention  only  a 
few.  Their  pens,  trenchant  in  politics,  were  also 
wielded  with  effect  in  other  spheres.  The  most 
remarkable  of  all  was  perhaps  Caro  (i  843-1 909), 
a  man  who  embodies  the  ideals  of  a  large  mass  of 
Colombians,  typifying  in  his  character  the  best  class 
of  Conservative.  As  a  statesman  Caro  was  absolutely 
incorruptible,  a  veritable  Cato  in  his  patriotism  and 
devotion  to  his  principles  :  his  public  life  was  in 
entire  harmony  with  his  writings.  His  literary  tastes 
were  a  legitimate  inheritance  from  his  father,  Jose 
Eusebio  Caro,  a  distinguished  poet.  He  was  a 
profound  classical  scholar  ;  at  an  early  age  he 
published  a  translation  of  Virgil  into  correct  and 
spirited  Spanish  verse,  as  faithful  and  happy  a 
rendering  of  that  master  as  is  to  be  found  in  any 
modern  language.  This  gained  for  him  at  once  a 
high  rank  in  the  world  of  Spanish  letters,  and  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  Madrid  Academy.  His 
public  career  did  not  interfere  with  his  literary 
studies,  but  it  was  as  a  critic  rather  than  as  a  creator 
that  he  kept  his  foremost  rank.  He  possessed  vast 
erudition  ;  his  knowledge  of  both  ancient  and  modern 
literature  was  profound  ;  but,  though  he  read,  he 
did  not  sympathize  with,  the  modern  writer.  Science 
for  him  meant  exclusively  the  Catholic  philosophy. 
Nineteenth-century    ideas    of    revolt    did    not    appeal 


EDUCATION  263 

to  him.      "  His   heart,"  it  has   been   said,    "  was   in 
the  reign  of  Phihp  the  Second." 

There  are  several  writers  who  might  be  set 
up  against  Caro  as  embodying  contrasting  phases 
of  Colombian  literary  activity.  Manuel  Ancizar 
(1812-82),  for  instance,  whose  stout  championship 
of  complete  liberty  of  thought  may  be  iforgotten, 
but  whose  Peregrinaciones  de  Alpha  is  destined 
to  immortality  in  his  own  land.  This  popular 
narrative  of  his  travels  while  engaged  under  Codazzi 
in  the  Corographical  Survey  is  a  model  of  scientific 
geographical  description  combined  with  felicity  of 
phrase,  revealing  a  true  appreciation  of  the  beauties 
of  nature  and  a  rare  insight  into  the  characters 
and  customs  of  the  people  among  whom  he  travelled. 
But  perhaps  the  most  striking  antithesis  to  Caro 
is  his  contemporary,  Salvador  Camacho  Roldan 
1(1827-1900),  for  the  two  men  had  many  points  of 
external  resemblance  which  serve  to  accentuate  the 
fundamental  contrast.  Camacho  Roldan,  like  Caro, 
was  a  man  of  unimpeachable  personal  character, 
lovable,  and  a  devoted  and  upright  public  servant 
in  important  posts,  though  he  never  wielded  supreme 
power.  A  successful  business  man,  he  was  of  an 
eminently  practical  turn  of  mind,  and  devoted  his 
great  intellectual  powers  chiefly  to  economical  sub- 
jects, as  a  writer  on  which,  in  Colombia,  he  stands 
unrivalled  in  depth  and  soundness,  save  perhaps  by 
Miguel  Samper,  whom  he  excels  in  the  faculty  which 
the  Colombians  share  with  the  French  of  embuing 
even  dry  subjects  with  an  esprit  that  enlivens  with- 
out destroying  values.  He  was  keenly  impressed 
with  Colombia's  need  to  throw  off  her  isolation  and 
swim  with  the  world  current.  Caro's  only  travels 
were  among  his  books — he  never  left  Colombia,  rarely 
even  Bogota.  Camacho  Roldan,  though  no  disdainer 
of  the  printed  word — he  founded  a  bookstore  famous 
throughout  Spanish  America — not  only  knew  his  own 


264  COLOMBIA 

land  well,  but  travelled  extensively  in  Europe  and 
the  United  States.  In  his  Notas  de  Viaje  he  left 
a  valuable  and  at  the  same  time  entertaining  record 
of  his  observations  on  an  extended  tour  from  Bogota 
to  and  through  the  United  States. 

Economical,  historical,  political,  and  even  critical 
work  cannot  readily  create  a  national  literature  in  the 
sense  of  one  fundamentally  distinctive,  apart  from  its 
subject  matter,  from  that  of  other  nations.  Fiction, 
poetry,  and  the  drama  may.  It  is  in  these  that  the 
national  spirit  spontaneously  expresses  itself,  rising 
from  the  soil  up.  But  the  Spanish  American 
character  in  general,  and  the  fundamental  conditions 
of  Spanish  American  life,  have,  until  very  recently, 
been  far  too  similar  in  the  various  countries,  and 
all  have  been  intellectually  too  much  under  th,e  same 
Spanish  and  French  influences,  to  have  permitted 
as  yet  any  very  wide  differentiation  of  national 
literatures.  Minor  variations  there  are,  apparent  to 
a  trained  literary  student  ;  but  at  a  first  glance  it 
is  well-nigh  impossible  to  tell  the  work  of  a  writer 
of  one  Spanish  American  nation  from  that  of  his 
confreres  of  another  country.  In  this  sense,  then, 
Colombia  has  no  national  literature  ;  there  is  no 
fundamental  stamp  that  at  once  impresses  the  work 
of  a  Colombian  poet  or  novelist  as  fundamentally 
different  from  that  of  a  Cuban,  a  Mexican,  a 
Peruvian,  etc.  So  far  the  drama  has  played  no 
part  in  shaping  Colombian  thought.  The  dramatic 
art  seems  to  require  for  its  fruition  a  finished,  not 
a  transitionary,  epoch  of  social  development,  and 
especially  a  working  stage.  It  is  a  truism  that  the 
dramatist  of  first  quality  must  know  stage  technique. 
Both  of  these  elements,  a  stage  and  an  economically 
rounded  civilization,  are  lacking  in  Colombia.  The 
only  city  in  the  land  of  population  enough  to  even 
attempt  to  support  a  permanent  stage  is  Bogota. 
And    even    Bogota    is    a    small    community.       The 


EDUCATION  265 

hesitancy  that  exists  to  enter  into  frank  discussion 
of  subjects,  the  fear  to  offend  one's  neighbour  that 
exists  in  every  small  community,  the  following  of 
the  lines  of  least  resistance,  do  not  tend  to  devolop 
a  drama  that  deals  with  modern  actual  problems, 
or  presents  great  truths  of  character  or  of  society. 
The  few  successful  plays  in  Colombia  have  been 
historical  plays,  dealing  superficially  and  usually  ver- 
bosely with  some  romantic  hero  or  gallant  episode 
of  the  past  ;  a  favourite  theme,  for  instance,  has 
been  the  life  and  death  of  Policarpa  Salavarrieta, 
lovingly  known  as  "La  Pola,"  heroine  of  the  war 
for  Independence. 

In  fiction  one  Colombian  novel,  first  published 
in  1867,  has  gained  an  international  reputation  and 
has  been  translated  into  several  languages. 
Maria  has  probably  received  the  highest  tributes 
from  critics  and  been  the  most  popular  and  widely 
read  of  all  Spanish  American  books.  Wherever 
Spanish  is  spoken  Maria  has  been  kno\\Ti,  loved, 
and  wept  over.  Its  author,  Jorge  Isaacs  (pronounced 
Ee-saks),  was  born  in  1837  in  the  Cauca,  the  son 
of  a  well-to-do  planter.  The  father  was  a  Jamaican 
Jew,  who,  at  an  early  age,  had  married  a  Catholic 
and  became  converted  to  that  religion,  in  which  he 
brought  up  his  children.  There  is  little  in  the  book 
that  displays  any  traces  at  all  of  Jewish  or  English 
influence  or  descent  ;  it  is  typically  Spanish 
American,  with  the  exquisite  prose-poetry,  exuberance 
and  even  floweriness  of  style,  the  poignancy  of  a 
first  love,  and  the  tender  sentiment  that  touches 
the  heart  and  moistens  the  eye  of  every  true  son 
of  the  tropics.  To  the  foreigner  the  chief  charm 
of  this  novel  lies  in  its  description  of  tropical  scenes 
and  customs,  and  especially  in  the  delineation  of  the 
characteristically  happy  intimate  home-life  of  rural 
Colombia.  With  all  its  sentiment  and  pathos,  its 
style   of   the   bygone   age   of   Paul   and    Virginia,   of 


266  COLOMBIA 

Chateaubriand  and  Lamartine,  Maria  does  not  cease 
to  be  a  novel  of  real  life — real  life  seen  with  the  eyes 
of  a  poet.  It  is  an  idyll  of  the  home,  a  narration 
of  household  joys  and  sorrows,  a  simple  history  of 
a  pure,  first-love  in  the  bosom  of  the  family  circle, 
too  pure,  too  tender,  too  reverently  dreamlike  to 
end  aught  otherwise  than  by  the  death  of  the  angelic 
heroine. 

The  popularity  of  Maria  has  been  chiefly  due, 
not  to  its  significance  as  fiction,  but  to  its  poetic 
qualities  ;  for  it  is  poetry  that  pulses  the  blood 
and  expands  the  emotions  of  your  Colombian. 
Musty  lawyers,  shrewd  merchants,  weather-beaten 
farmers  can  recite  you  verse  by  the  hour.  There 
is  a  veritable  cult  of  poetry  in  Colombia.  The 
highest  honours  are  showered  upon  the  poet,  and, 
more  significant,  he  is  read  and,  even  more,  listened 
to— an  evening's  recital  by  one  of  the  popular  poets 
of  the  day  will  invariably  attract  a  large  audience. 
Much  poetry  is  written — much  that  is  good,  little 
that  is  positively  bad,  though  of  a  sameness  that  is 
more  wearisome  than  positive  fault — the  eternal 
symbols  of  love  and  adoration  done  to  death. 

No  striking  genius  has  been  produced,  but  dozens 
of  poets  of  talent  have  enriched  Spanish  literature, 
so  many  that  it  is  difiicult  to  single  a  few  for  mention. 
Jose  Fernandez  Madrid  (i  780-1 829),  during  the  war 
for  Independence,  must  have  inspired  by  his  pas- 
sionate appeals  for  liberty  many  a  brave  deed  and 
spurred  on  discouraged  leaders  :  Jose  Eusebio  Caro 
(1817-53),  Gutierrez  Gonzalez  (1826-72),  J.  J.  Ortiz 
(1814-92),  Joaquin  Pablo  Posada  (1825-80), 
are  honoured  names.  Julio  Arboleda  (1817-62),  of 
a  patrician  family,  is  perhaps  the  best  known  of 
Colombian  poets.  Rarely  have  they  attempted  poems 
of  a  large  canvass^;  short  verses  breathing  love  or 
gallantry,  patriotism  or  admiration  for  the  beauties 
of  the  Andes  and  the  plains,  or  witty  jeux  (VespritSy 


EDUCATION  267 

sharp  epigrams,  and  satires  have  been  the  favoured 
style.  But  Arboleda  wrote  a  heroic  epic  of  the 
Spanish  conquest,  Gonzalo  de  Oyon,  unfortunately 
left  uncompleted,  for  this  delicate  wielder  of  the 
pen  was  a  cruel  soldier  in  his  country's  fratricidal 
strifes,  and  met  death  at  the  hands  of  an  assassin, 
whose  father,  so  said  Arboleda's  foes,  he  had  put 
to  death. 

Of  a  somewhat  later  generation  two  poets  stood 
out  pre-eminently,  Diego  Fallon  (i 834-1 905)  and 
Rafael  Pombo  (1833-1912).  Fallon,  whose 
literary  output  was  scanty  but  of  a  singularly 
polished  yet  inspired  content,  like  Gray,  taking 
infinite  pains  over  his  few  verses,  and  like 
Coleridge,  spending  himself  in  brilliant  conversa- 
tion ;  Pombo,  whom  the  Argentine  litterateur.  Cane, 
has  styled  "  one  of  the  greatest  poets  who  has 
written  in  Spanish."  Cane  narrates  an  amusing 
anecdote  that  occurred  in  a  literary  salon  in  New 
York,  presided  over  by  a  distinguished  Argentine 
lady,  to  whom  Pombo  was  presented.  The  lady 
asked  Pombo  who  was  the  anonymous  poetess,  the 
famous  Edda  the  Bogotana,  whose  verses,  imbued 
with  such  a  profound  and  absorbing  passion,  recalled 
the  inimitable  accents  of  Sappho  crying  body  and 
soul  for  the  man  of  her  dreams  and  desires. 

"  Do  you  really  find  these  verses  worth  reading?  " 
asked  Pombo. 

"  .Worth  reading  !  Verses  vibrating  with  the 
deepest  passions  of  a  woman's  soul,  verses  so  essen- 
tially feminine,  verses,  too,  exhaling  the  mysticism, 
the  adoration  of  a  Santa  Teresa  !  Oh  !  you  men, 
who  among  you  could  write  such  verses?  " 

"  .Well,"  said  Pombo,  "  Edda  is  now  in  New 
York,  and  if  you  want  to  make  her  acquaintance " 

"  Speak,  man  I  "  cried  his  hostess  impetuously  ; 
"  where  does  she  live? — what's  her  name?  I'll  see 
her  to-morrow  ;     I   will  cover  her  with  kisses  !  " 


268  COLOMBIA 

"  Then  begin,  seiiora,"  said  the  ugly  Httle  Pombo  ; 
"  I-I  am  Edda." 

These  men  are  dead,  but  the  aspirants  for  their 
commanding  place  are  enrolled  by  the  score  and 
the  hundred.  The  torrents  and  rivers  of  Colombian 
verse  flow  unceasingly,  with  a  facility  of  language 
and  of  rhyme  and  a  technical  correctness  that  is 
appalling.  Even  men  close  to  the  soil,  men  of  the 
plains  and  the  hills,  without  education,  without  access 
to  books,  have  sung  songs  of  no  mean  merit,  their 
names  unknown  while  their  songs  endure.  Of  the 
poets  now  living,  it  would  be  invidious  to  make  any 
comment  ;  the  mere  mention  of  a  few  names  may 
be  not  without  interest  to  a  stray  reader  who  might 
want  to  read  deeper.  Julio  Florez,  Guillermo 
Valencia,  Max.  Grillo,  Alirio  Diaz  Guerra,  Roberto 
McDouall,  Leon  Gomez,  Arciniegas,  Restrepo,  Rivas 
Groot  are  among  a  few  of  the  more  popular  present- 
day  poets  who  have  graced  Colombian  literature. 

I  trust  I  have  said  enough  to  indicate  that  in  this 
remote  corner  of  the  earth,  in  this  country  whose 
literate  population  is  less  than  half  a  million,  though 
no  literary  genius  of  the  very  first  rank  has  arisen, 
men  of  talent  and  of  inspiration  have  been  many, 
that  this  soil  of  literary  traditions  holds  latent  possi- 
bilities and  promises  of  the  richest  intellectual 
harvest.  No  one  who  has  come  into  contact,  either 
personally  or  through  the  medium  of  their  books, 
with  the  cultured  race  of  Colombians  can  escape  the 
feeling  that  they  possess  inherent  qualities  of  a  high 
order  to  enrich  the  world.  Let  Colombia  once  swing 
fully  into  line  in  the  march  of  the  nations,  let  the 
portals  of  progress  be  opened  wide  to  her,  there 
will  come  a  renaissance  of  the  spirit,  and  geniuses 
may  well  bloom  to  confer  a  priceless  heritage  upon 
humanity. 

At  present,  however,  old  traditions,  old  allegiances 


%i4 


EDUCATION  269 

are  too  powerful  to  make  the  full  expression  of 
thought  attractive.  In  contact  with  the  Colombian 
mind,  even  when  it  is  in  apparent  revolt,  one  is 
conscious  of  coming  face  to  face  again  and  again 
with  barred  doors,  behind  which  lurk  the  ghosts  of 
the  past,  barriers  which  no  one  seeks  to  open  for 
fear  of  offending  friends,  relatives,  spiritual  advisers, 
business  associates,  for  fear  of  arousing  popular 
antagonism,  for  fear  of  social  ostracism,  for  fear, 
in  short,  of  all  those  countless  impediments  to  a 
full  and  free  self-expression  which,  though  to  a 
lesser  degree  than  in  this  small  community,  are  still 
encountered  even  in  the  most  advanced  and  pro- 
gressive societies.  And  the  stifling  or  discourage- 
ment of  thought  in  one  direction — how  irreparable 
the  damage,  in  what  countless  and  unforeseen  ways 
does  it  diminish  man's  intellectual  achievements  along 
lines  ever  so  remotely  distant. 

Personal  contact  with  educated  foreigners  is  one 
quick  medium  of  disseminating  the  latest  advances 
in  knowledge,  and  stimulating  interchange  of  ideas 
and  expression  of  thought.  As  the  number  of 
Colombians  who  can  gain  education  abroad  is  neces- 
sarily limited,  there  is  a  useful  field  of  social  service 
open  to  foreigners  in  Colombia,  not  only  to  those 
who  possess  capital  and  can  wield  modern  business 
methods,  but  especially  to  those  trained  in  the  theo- 
retical and  applied  sciences,  who  by  example  or  direct 
teaching  could  raise  the  general  standards  of  living  in 
Colombia  and  help  lift  the  country  to  the  foremost 
plane.  The  experience  of  other  Spanish  American 
nations  shows  that  nothing  is  to  be  feared  from  an 
influx  of  foreigners  ;  the  natives,  prospering  as  the 
nation  prospers  with  the  advent  of  outside  capital 
and  blood,  retain  their  ascendancy.  The  Colombian 
Government  is  well  aware  of  the  scholastic  need 
of  foreigners,  and  from  time  to  time  teachers  and 
professors  are  imported  from  Europe  ;    but  it  cannot 


270  COLOMBIA 

be  expected  that  men  of  the  highest  calibre  will  be 
attracted  as  long  as  the  salaries  offered  are  low 
and  such  clauses  are  inserted  in  the  contracts  as 
"  (The  Professor)  agrees  to  totally  abstain  from 
all  conversation  or  discussion  in  regard  to  questions 
of  a  political  or  religious  character."  Undeniably, 
a  foreigner's  first  duty  is  to  refrain  from  participa- 
tion in  politics  or  in  religious  controversies,  as  long 
as  religion  is  an  element  in  the  political  situation, 
but  it  would  be  somewhat  galling  to  a  man  of 
spirit  to  have  such  an  express  proviso  thrust  into 
his  contract  of  employment. 

But  once  let  Colombia's  best  minds  cease  to  be 
unduly  engrossed  by  the  petty  strife  of  partisan 
politics,  let  her  people  come  into  harmony  with  the 
latest  scientific  developments,  let  her  keen  intellects 
learn  to  think  world  thoughts  and  soar  on  the  wings 
of  complete  freedom,  and  no  one  need  be  astonished 
if  this  cradle  of  learning  produces  a  race  of  intel- 
lectual giants.      The   raw  material  is  there. 


APPENDIX   I 

AMENDMENTS  TO  THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  COLOMBIA' 
ADOPTED  BY  LEGISLATIVE  ACT  NUMBER  3  OF  1910 
(OCTOBER  31ST) 

TITLE  I 

Art.  I.  The  boundaries  of  the  Repubhc  with  the  neighbouring  Amending 
nations  are  as  follows  :  with  Venezuela,  those  established  by  the 
arbitral  award  of  the  King  of  Spain  ;  with  Costa  Rica,  those  pre- 
scribed by  the  arbitral  award  of  the  President  of  the  French 
Republic  ;  with  Brazil,  those  determined  by  the  Treaty  made  with 
that  Republic,  in  so  far  as  therein  delimited,  and  for  the  remaining 
part,  the  boundaries  in  1810  between  the  Viceroyalty  of  New 
Granada  and  the  Portuguese  possessions  ;  with  the  Republic  of 
Ecuador,  provisionally,  those  established  in  the  Colombian  law  of 
June  25,  1824 ;  and  with  Peru,  those  adopted  in  the  Mosquera- 
Pedemonte  protocol,  in  furtherance  of  the  Treaty  of  September  22, 
1829. 

The  lines  separating  the  RepubHc  from  the  contiguous  nations 
can  only  be  changed  by  virtue  of  public  treaties  duly  approved  by 
both  Houses  of  the  Legislature. 

Art.  2.     The  national  territory  shall  be  divided  into  Departments,   Amending 
and  the  Departments  into  Municipalities  or  Municipal  Districts.  ^'^^^ 

The  laws  may  decree  the  formation  of  new  Departments,  dis- 
membering the  present  ones,  when  demanded  bv-three-fourths  of 
the  Municipal  Councillors  of  the  region  that  is  to  form  the  new 
Department,  and  provided  the  following  conditions  be  complied 
with  : 

(i)  That  the  new  Department  have  at  least  250,000  inhabitants 
and  an  annual  income  of  $250,000. 

(2)  That  the  Department  or  each  of  the  Departments  from  which 
it  is  to  be  separated  be  left  with  at  least  a  population  of  250,000  in- 
habitants, and  with  an  annual  income  not  less  than  $250,000  ;  and 

(3)  That  the  law  decreeing  the  creation  of  the  new  Department  be 
approved  by  two  successive  annual  Legislatures. 


See  note  to  page  58. 

271 


272 


APPENDIX   I 


A  law  approved  in  the  ordinary  form  shall  be  sufficient  for  the 
abolition  of  any  Department  created  subsequent  to  the  present 
Legislative  Act,  provided  that  during  debate  it  be  proven  that  the 
entity  to  be  abolished  lacks  any  of  the  foregoing  conditions. 

The  laws  may  separate  municipalities  from  one  Department  or 
abolish  territories  {intend  end  as)  and  annex  them  to  one  or  more 
adjoining  Departments. 


Amending 
Arts.  29  and 
30- 

Amending 
Art.  31. 


Amending 
Alt.  32. 


TITLE  III 

Art,  3.  The  Legislature  shall  in  no  case  prescribe  the  penalty  of 
capital  punishment. 

Art.  4.  No  law  establishing  a  monopoly  can  be  enforced  until 
the  persons  who  are  thereby  deprived  of  the  exercise  of  a  lawful 
occupation  shall  have  been  fully  idemnified. 

No  monopoly  shall  be  established  except  as  a  means  of  revenue 
and  by  virtue  of  a  law. 

Special  privileges  may  be  granted  only  in  connection  with  useful 
inventions  and  means  of  communication. 

Art.  5.  In  time  of  peace  no  one  shall  be  deprived  of  his  pro- 
perty or  any  part  thereof  except  as  a  punishment  or  by  judicial 
compulsion,  or  indemnity,  or  by  a  general  tax,  in  accordance  with 
the  laws.  For  grave  causes  of  public  utility,  defined  by  the  Legisla- 
ture, there  may  be^  compulsory  alienation  of  private  property  under 
judicial  mandate  ;  the  value  of  the  property  shall  be  paid  before  the 
expropriation  is  carried  out. 

Art.  6.  In  time  of  peace,  only  the  Congress,  the  Departmental 
Assemblies,  and  the  Municipal  Councils  may  levy  taxes. 

Art.  7.  New  emissions  of  paper  money  of  compulsory  circula- 
tion are  absolutely  prohibited. 


Amending 
Arts.  68  and 


Amending 
Art.  74- 


TITLE  VI 

Art.  8.  The  Legislative  Chambers  shall  convene  of  their  own 
right  each  year  on  the  20th  of  July  in  the  capital  of  the  Republic. 
If,  for  any  cause  whatsoever,  they  cannot  do  so  on  such  date,  they 
shall  convene  as  soon  as  possible  within  the  year. 

The  sessions  of  the  Congress  shall  last  ninety  days,  and  may  be 
extended  for  thirty  days  more,  if  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  of  the 
two  Houses  shall  so  provide. 

The  Congress  may  also  meet  when  convoked  by  the  Government, 
and  it  shall  then  treat  in  the  first  place  of  the  matters  submitted  to 
it  for  consideration  by  the  Government.  In  such  case  it  shall 
remain  in  session  for  such  time  as  the  Government  shall  determine. 

Art.  9.  The  Congress  shall  meet  as  one  body  solely  to  install 
the  President  in  his  office  and  to  elect  Designates. 


APPENDIX  I 


273 


In  such  cases  the  Presidents  of  the  Senate  and  of  the  Chamber, 
respectively,  shall  be  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  Congress. 

Art.  g.  The  Congress  shall  annually  elect  two  Designates,  a  first 
and  a  second,  who  shall  exercise  the  Executive  Power  in  that  order 
in  case  of  a  vacancy  in  the  Presidency. 


Amending 
Art.  77. 


TITLE  VIII 


Amending 
Art.  93- 


Art.  II.  The  Senate  shall  be  composed  of  as  many  members  as 
correspond  to  the  population  of  the  Republic  in  the  ratio  of  one  for 
each  120,000  inhabitants,  and  one  additional  for  any  fraction  thereof 
not  less  than  50,000.  Two  substitutes  shall  be  elected  for  each 
Senator. 

Art.  12.     The  Senators  shall  be  elected  by  Electoral  Councils. 

Art.  13.  It  is  the  function  of  the  Departmental  Assemblies  to 
elect  the  members  of  the  Electoral  Councils  in  the  proportion  of 
one  for  each  30,000  inhabitants  of  the  respective  Department. 

Art.  14.  The  national  territory  shall  be  divided  by  law  into 
Senatorial  circumscriptions  of  one  or  more  Departments,  in  such 
wise  .that  .there  may  be  minority  representation. 

Art.  15.  Persons  forming  part  of  the  respective  Electoral 
Council  may  not  be  elected  Senators. 

Art.  16.  The  term  of  office  of  Senators  shall  be  four  years. 
They  are  re-eligible  indefinitely. 

Art.  17.     It   is  a  function  of   the  Senate,  in  addition  to  those   Amending 
attributed  to   it   by  Article  98  of   the   Constitution,  to   elect  four   p^^'^^' 
magistrates   of  the    Supreme    Court   of   Justice    and   their   substi- 
tutes from  ternal  nominations  presented  by  the  President  of   the 
Republic. 


Amendinjj 
Art.  95. 


TITLE  IX 

Art.  18.  The  Chamber  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of 
as  many  persons  as  correspond  to  the  population  of  the  Republic, 
in  the  ratio  of  one  for  each  50,000  inhabitants. 

Two  substitutes  shall  be  elected  for  each  Representative. 

Art.  19.  The  term  of  office  of  the  Representatives  shall  be  two 
years,  and  they  shall  be  re-eligible  indefinitely. 

Art.  20.  The  Chamber  of  Representatives  has  the  following 
powers  : 

(i)  To  examine  and  definitively  close  the  general  account  of  the 
Treasury ; 

(2)  To  initiate  legislation  for  the  levying  of  taxes  or  organizing 
the  Public  Ministry  (Attorney-General's  office) ; 

(3)  To  elect  five  magistrates  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  and 
their  substitutes  from  ternal  nominations  presented  by  the  President 
of  the  Republic. 

19 


Amending 
Art.  99. 


Amending 
Art.  loi. 


274 


APPENDIX  I 


(4)  To  impeach  before  the  Senate,  whenever  there  may  be  just 
cause,  the  President  of  the  Republic,  the  Ministers  of  the  Cabinet, 
the  Attorney-General  of  the  Nation,  and  the  Magistrates  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Justice  ;  and 

(5)  To  take  cognizance  of  charges  and  complaints  presented  to 
it  by  the  Attorney-General  of  the  Nation  or  by  private  persons 
against  any  of  the  aforesaid  officers,  and  to  base  thereon,  if  found 
meritorious,  impeachments  for  trial  by  the  Senate. 


Amenditif; 
Art.  107. 


Amendint 
Art.  108.  " 


Amending 
Art.  109. 


Amending 
Art.  113. 


TITLE  X 

Art.  21.  No  member  of  the  Congress  may  be  arrested  or  sued 
civilly  or  criminally  without  the  permission  of  the  Chamber  of 
which  he  is  a  member,  during  the  sessions  of  Congress  or  forty 
days  before  or  twenty  days  thereafter.  In  case  of  flagrante  delicto, 
the  delinquent  may  be  detained,  and  shall  be  placed  forthwith  at 
the  disposal  of  the  respective  Chamber. 

Art.  22.  The  President  of  the  Republic,  the  Cabinet  Ministers, 
the  Magistrates  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice,  the  Attorney- 
General  of  the  Nation  and  the  Governors  may  not  be  elected 
members  of  Congress  until  three  months  after  they  have  ceased 
to  perform  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices. 

Neither  may  any  one  be  Senator  or  Representative  for  a  Depart- 
ment or  electoral  circumscription  wherein  within  three  months 
prior  to  the  elections  he  has  exercised  civil,  political,  or  military 
jurisdiction. 

Art.  23.  The  President  of  the  Republic  may  not  confer  office 
upon  Senators  or  Representatives  who  have  been  in  the  performance 
of  their  duties  during  their  term  of  office,  except  that  this  pro- 
hibition shall  not  apply  to  the  offices  of  Cabinet  Minister, 
Governor,  Diplomatic  representative,  or  Military  Chief  in  time  of 
war. 

Violation  of  this  rule  renders  the  nomination  null  and  void. 

Acceptance  of  any  of  these  [permitted]  offices  by  a  member  of 
Congress  causes  an  absolute  vacancy  [of  his  seat]  in  the  respective 
Chamber,  except  that  acceptance  of  the  office  of  Cabinet  Minister 
produces  only  a  temporary  vacancy  during  the  time  while  he  dis- 
charges such  office. 

Art.  24.  In  case  of  vacancy,  either  temporary  or  absolute, 
in  the  seat  of  a  member  of  Congress,  the  respective  substitute 
shall  act  in  his  stead. 


Amending 
Art.  114. 


TITLE    XI 

Art.  25.     The  President  of  the  Republic  shall  be  elected  by  the 
direct  votes  of  the  citizens  having  the  right  to  vote  for  Represen- 


APPENDIX  I 


275 


tatives,  and  for  a  term  of  four  years,  in  the  manner  prescribed  by 
law.     The  voting  shall  be  on  a  single  day. 

Art.  26.  In  case  of  a  temporary  vacancy  in  the  Presidency 
of  the  Republic  or  in  case  of  an  absolute  vacancy  pending  a  new 
election,  the  first  or  second  Designate,  elected  annually  by  the 
Congress,  shall  exercise  in  order  the  Executive  Power. 

If  for  any  cause  whatsoever  Congress  shall  not  have  elected 
Designates,  those  last  elected  shall  continue  as  such.  In  default  of 
Designates,  the  Ministers  shall  enter  upon  the  duties  of  the 
Executive  office  in  the  order  prescribed  by  law,  and  in  default 
of  Ministers,  the  Governors,  the  order  of  succession  among  whom 
shall  be  according  to  the  proximity  of  their  residences  to  the 
capital  of  the  Republic  [the  nearest  one  succeeding]. 
Absolute  vacancies  in  the  Presidency  are  caused  by  : 
Death,  accepted  resignation,  dismissal  after  sentence  passed, 
permanent  physical  incapacity  and  abandonment  of  office.  The 
last  two  shall  be  declared  by  the  Senate. 

Art.  27.  In  case  of  absolute  vacancies  in  the  Presidency,  the 
successor  in  charge  of  the  Executive  Power  shall  convoke  elections 
for  a  date  within  sixty  days  after  the  vacancy. 

But  when  the  unexpired  period  of  the  term  is  one  year  or  less, 
the  successor  in  charge  of  the  Executive  Power  shall  continue  in 
the  performance  of  his  duties,  without  convoking  new  elections. 

Art.  28.  The  President  of  the  Republic  is  in  no  event  re- 
eligible  for  the  next  succeeding  term. 

No  citizen  who,  under  any  title  whatsoever,  may  have  performed 
the  functions  of  the  Executive  Power  within  the  year  immediately 
preceding  the  election,  may  be  elected  President  of  the  Republic 
or  Designate. 

Art.  29.  The  President  of  the  Republic,  or  whosoever  acts 
in  his  stead,  shall  be  responsible  for  acts  and  omissions  that  violate 
the  Constitution  and  the  laws. 

Art.  30.  No  act  of  the  President,  except  the  appointment  and 
removal  of  Ministers,  shall  be  valid  or  have  any  effect  whatsoever 
unless  it  is  countersigned  and  promulgated  by  the  Minister  to 
whose  department  it  refers,  who  shall  be  responsible  by  virtue  of 
such  action. 

Art.  31.  The  President  of  the  Republic,  during  the  term  for 
which  he  is  elected,  and  whosoever  is  in  charge  of  the  Executive 
Power  during  his  incumbency,  may  not  be  prosecuted  or  tried 
for  crimes,  except  by  virtue  of  an  impeachment  by  the  Chamber  of 
Representatives  and  after  the  Senate  shall  have  declared  that  there 
is  ground  for  such  prosecution. 

Art.  32.  The  President  of  the  Republic,  or  whosoever  acts  in  the 
stead,  may  not  during  his  incumbency  of  office  or  within  one  year 
thereafter  leave  national  soil  without  the  permission  of  the  Senate. 


Amending 

Arts.  124 
and  125, 


Amending 
Arts.  124 
and  125. 


Amending 
Art.  128. 


Amending 
Art.  122. 


Idem. 


276 


APPENDIX  I 


Amending 
Art.  121. 


Amending 
Art.  120, 
par.  10. 


Violation  of  this  provision,  during  incumbency  of  office,  implies  an 
abandonment  of  office. 

Art.  33.  In  case  of  foreign  war  or  civil  disturbance  the  Presi- 
dent, with  the  signature  of  all  the  Ministers,  may  declare  public 
order  disturbed  and  the  Republic  or  any  part  thereof  to  be  in 
a  state  of  siege.  By  such  declaration  the  Government,  in  addition 
to  the  powers  conferred  by  the  laws,  shall  have  such  powers  as 
govern  war  between  nations  pursuant  to  the  accepted  rules  of 
International  Law. 

Decrees,  within  the  scope  of  the  aforesaid  powers,  issued  by  the 
President  shall  be  binding  and  obligatory,  provided  they  are 
signed  by  all  the  Ministers. 

The  Government  may  not  repeal  laws  by  means  of  such  decrees. 
Its  powers  are  limited  to  the  suspension  of  laws  which  are  incom- 
patible with  a  state  of  siege. 

The  Government  shall  declare  public  order  re-established  as 
soon  as  the  foreign  war  shall  have  ceased  or  the  uprising  shall 
have  been  suppressed  ;  and  decrees  of  extraordinary  character 
that  it  may  have  issued  shall  cease  to  be  in  force. 

The  President  and  Ministers  shall  be  responsible  if  they  declare 
public  order  disturbed  when  in  fact  the  event  of  foreign  war  or 
civil  disturbance  has  not  occurred  ;  and  they,  as  also  all  other 
officers,  shall  likewise  be  responsible  for  any  abuse  committed  in 
the  exercise  of  the  powers  granted  by  this  Article. 

Upon  the  re-establishment  of  public  order,  the  Government 
shall  convene  the  Congress  and  shall  submit  a  statement  of  its  acts 
and  the  reasons  therefor  to  that  body. 

In  case  of  foreign  war,  the  Government  in  the  same  decree 
whereby  it  declares  public  order  to  be  disturbed  and  the  Republic 
to  be  in  a  state  of  siege,  shall  convene  the  Congress  to  meet  within 
sixty  days  thereafter  ;  and  if  it  does  not  so  convene  the  Congress, 
that  body  may  meet  of  its  own  right. 

Art.  34.  It  is  a  function  of  the  President  of  the  Republic,  as 
the  supreme  administrative  authority,  to  direct  diplomatic  and 
commercial  relations  with  other  Powers  and  sovereigns  ;  to  appoint 
diplomatic  representatives  and  receive  foreign  representatives,  and 
to  negotiate  treaties  and  conventions  with  foreign  Powers,  which 
shall  be  submitted  to  the  Congress  for  approval. 


Amending 
Art.  146. 


TITLE   XV 

Art.  35.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  shall  be  composed  of 
nine  magistrates.  It  shall  be  divided  by  law  into  parts,  and  to 
each  part  shall  be  assigned  the  matters  whereof  it  shall  separately 
take  cognizance,  and  the  matters  wherein  the  whole  Court  shall 
intervene  shall  likewise  be  determined. 


APPENDIX  I 


277 


Art.  36.    The  term  of  office  of  magistrates  of  the  Supreme  Court  Amending 
shall   be  five  years,   and  that  of  the  magistrates  of  the   Superior   ^"'^  '''^' 
Courts   shall   be  four  years.     Both  may  be  re-elected  indefinitely. 

Art.  37.     The  President  of  the  Supreme  Court  shall  be  elected   Amending 
each  year  by  the  court  itself.  ^'"'-  ''♦^• 

Art.  38.  The  magistrates  of  the  Superior  Courts  and  the  respec- 
tive substitutes  shall  be  appointed  by  the  Supreme  Court  from 
ternal  nominations  made  by  the  respective  Departmental  Assemblies. 

Art.  39.  The  Government  shall  appoint  magistrates  pro  tempore 
to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  and  the  respective  Governors  shall 
appoint  judges  pro  tempore  to  the  Superior  Courts,  when  the 
vacancies  in  the  office  of  the  principals  cannot  be  filled  by  the 
substitutes. 

Art.  40.  In  every  case  of  incompatibility  between  the  Constitu- 
tion and  the  laws,  the  constitutional  provisions  shall  be  preferred 
and  enforced. 

Art.  41.     To  the   Supreme   Court    of    Justice    is  confided    the   Amending 
guardianship   of   the  integrity  of  the  Constitution.     Consequentl)%   ^'■'-  'Si. 
it   shall  have  the  following  powers,  in  addition  to  those  conferred 
upon  it  by  the  Constitution  and  the  laws  : 

To  decide  definitively  as  to  the  enforceabiHty  of  Legislative  Acts 
which  the  Government  has  objected  to  as  unconstitutional  and 
of  all  laws  and  decrees  attacked  before  it  by  any  citizen  as 
unconstitutional,  the  Attorney-General  of  the  Nation  being  heard 
thereon. 

Art.  42.  The  laws  shall  provide  for  contentious  administrative 
proceedings. 


Amending 
Art.  172. 


Amending 
Art.  173. 


TITLE    XVII 

Art.  43.  The  entire  citizenship  by  direct  vote  shall  elect 
Municipal  Councillors  and  Deputies  to  the  Departmental 
Assemblies. 

Art.  44.  Citizens  able  to  read  and  write  or  who  have  an  annual 
income  of  three  hundred  pesos  or  real  estate  of  the  value  of  a 
thousand  pesos,  shall  elect  the  President  of  the  Repubhc  and 
Representatives  by  direct  vote. 

Art.  45.  In  every  election  wherein  two  or  more  individuals  are 
voted  for,  the  election  shall  be  by  the  system  of  incomplete  voting 
or  electoral  quotient  or  cumulative  voting  or  any  other  whatsoever 
that  assures  proportional  representation  of  parties.  The  manner  of 
making  this  right  effective  shall  be  determined  by  law. 

Art.  46.     The  laws  shall  apportion  and  delimit  electoral  districts   Amending 
for  the  election  of  Representatives,  and  the  Departmental  Assem-    lysVc.^ 
blies  shall  apportion  and  delimit  electoral  districts  for  the  election 
of   Deputies,  if   the  electoral  system  that  is  adopted  requires  the 


201  inc. 


278  APPENDIX  I 

formation  of  electoral  districts.     In  such  case,  no  electoral  district 
may  elect  less  than  three  Representatives  or  Deputies. 

Amendinfj 

Arts.iHzto  TITLE    XVIII 

Art.  47.  The  territory  of  the  Republic  is  divided  for  adminis- 
trative purposes  into  Departments.  Each  Department  shall  be  ruled 
by  a  Governor  who  shall  be  both  the  representative  of  the  Executive 
Power  and  the  chief  of  the  local  (sectional)  administration. 

Akt.  48.  Under  the  limitations  established  by  the  Constitution, 
the  Departments  shall  be  independent  in  the  administration  of 
local  matters. 

Art.  49.  The  Departments  are  divided  into  Municipal  Districts. 
For  better  administration,  provincial  or  other  divisions  may  be 
established. 

Art.  50.  The  property  and  revenues  of  the  Departments  and 
of  the  Municipalities  are  their  own  exclusive  property,  respectively, 
and  enjoy  the  same  guarantees  as  the  property  and  revenues  of 
private  persons.  Such  property  cannot  be  taken  except  under  the 
same  conditions  as  private  property.  The  National  Government 
may  not  grant  exemption  from  departmental  or  municipal  taxes. 

Art.  51.  The  property,  rights,  securities,  and  shares  which 
belonged  to  the  extinct  Sovereign  States  either  by  laws  or 
by  decrees  of  the  National  Government  or  under  any  other  title 
whatsoever,  shall  continue  to  be  owned  by  the  respective  Depart- 
ments ;  except  the  immovables  specified  in  Article  202  of  the 
Constitution. 

Art.  52.  In  each  Department  there  shall  be  an  administrative 
corporation  called  the  Departmental  Assembly,  which  shall  meet 
annually  in  the  capital  of  the  Department. 

Art.  53.  The  Departmental  Assemblies  shall  be  elected  by 
popular  vote  and  shall  be  composed  of  deputies  corresponding 
in  number  to  the  population  of  the  Departments  in  the  ratio  of 
one  for  each  12,000  inhabitants  and  one  for  each  fraction  thereof 
greater  than  6,000.  This  electoral  basis  may  be  changed  by  law 
and  the  time  and  duration  of  sessions  shall  be  fixed  by  law. 

Art.  54.     The  Assemblies  are  invested  with  the  power  : 

(i)  To  regulate,  by  ordinance  and  in  accordance  with  consti- 
tutional precepts,  primary  and  secondary  educational  institutions 
and  benevolent  institutions,  supported  with  departmental  funds  ; 

(2)  To  direct  and  encourage  by  ordinance  and  with  departmental 
resources  industries  already  established  and  the  introduction  of 
new  ones,  the  importation  of  foreign  capital,  the  colonization  of 
lands  belonging  to  the  Department,  the  opening  of  roads  and 
navigable  canals,  the   construction  of   railways,   the   utilization   of 


APPENDIX  I  279 

forests  belonging  to  the  Department,  the  improvement  of  river 
channels,  matters  concerning  the  local  police,  the  supervision  of  the 
revenues  and  expenditures  of  the  districts,  and  generally  all  matters 
belonging  to  the  local  interests  and  internal  advancement ; 

(3)  To  organize  departmental  accounting  offices  or  tribunals  of 
accounts,  appoint  the  corresponding  comptrollers  or  magistrates, 
and  to  present  the  ternal  lists  of  nominations  for  the  District 
Attorneys  (fiscales)  in  the  Superior  Courts  and  tribunals  and  for 
the  respective  substitutes  ; 

(4)  To  create  and  abolish  municipalities  pursuant  to  the  basis  of 
population  prescribed  by  law,  and  to  separate  or  annex  municipal 
aggregations,  consulting  local  interests.  If  any  such  annexations  or 
separation  be  complained  of  by  any  resident  whose  interests  are 
involved,  the  final  determination  of  the  matter  shall  be  by  the 
Congress ; 

(5)  To  create  and  abolish  Notarial  and  Registry  Circuits  and  to 
determine  the  number  of  departmental  employees,  their  duties  and 
salaries  ;  and 

(6)  To  exercise  the  other  functions  attributed  to  them  by  the 
Constitution  and  the  laws. 

Art.  55.  The  Assemblies  shall  annually  vote  the  Budget  of 
Revenues  and  Expenditures  of  the  respective  Department. 

Art.  56.  In  order  to  meet  the  necessary  expenses  of  administra- 
tion, the  Departmental  Assemblies  may  impose  taxes  under  the  con- 
ditions and  within  the  limitations  prescribed  by  law. 

Art.  57.  The  ordinances  passed  by  the  Departmental  Assemblies 
are  binding  as  long  as  they  are  not  annulled  by  the  judiciary  in  the 
manner  prescribed  by  law. 

Art.  58.  Private  persons  aggrieved  by  acts  of  the  Assemblies 
may  resort  to  the  competent  court,  which,  by  speedy  proceedings, 
in  case  of  grave  injury,  may  suspend  the  act  complained  of. 

Art.  59.     The  Governor  is  vested  with  the  following  powers  : 

(i)  To  comply  with  the  orders  of  the  Government  and  cause  the 
same  to  be  complied  with  within  the  Department ; 

(2)  To  direct  administrative  action  in  the  Department,  appointing 
and  removing  his  agents  and  amending  or  revoking  their  acts,  and 
dictating  the  provisions  necessary  in  all  branches  of  the  adminis- 
tration ; 

(3)  To  be  the  organ  of  the  Department  and  represent  it  in 
political  and  administrative  matters  ; 

(4)  To  assist  the  administration  of  justice  as  prescribed  by  law  ; 

(5)  To  exercise  the  right  of  supervision  and  protection  over 
official  corporations  and  public  institutions  ; 

(6)  To  approve  in  legal  form  the  ordinances  enacted  by  the 
Departmental  Assemblies  ; 


280 


APPENDIX  I 


(7)  To  revise  the  acts  of  the  municipalities  and  mayors  (alcaldes) 
on  the  ground  of  unconstitutionaHty  or  illegality,  to  revoke  those  of 
the  alcaldes  and  to  remit  those  of  tlic  municipalities  to  the  judiciary 
for  decision  as  to  their  enforceability  ; 

(8)  And  such  other  functions  as  may  by  law  belong  to  him. 

Art.  60.  The  Governor  may  call  upon  the  armed  force  for  aid 
and  the  military  chief  shall  obey  his  orders,  saving  special  provisions 
issued  by  the  Government. 

Art.  61.  In  each  Municipal  District  there  shall  be  a  corporation 
elected  by  popular  vote,  which  shall  be  designated  by  the  name  of 
Municipal  Council. 

Art.  62.  It  is  the  function  of  the  Municipal  Councils,  by  means 
of  local  resolutions  or  regulations,  to  provide  for  the  due  adminis- 
tration of  the  district  ;  to  vote  local  taxes  and  expenditures,  in  con- 
formity with  the  Constitution,  the  laws,  and  the  ordinances  passed 
by  the  Assemblies  ;  to  take  a  civil  census  when  prescribed  by  law  ; 
to  appoint  municipal  judges,  attorneys,  and  treasurers,  and  to  exer- 
cise the  other  functions  that  may  be  assigned  to  them. 

Art.  63.  The  resolutions  of  the  Municipal  Councils  are  binding 
as  long  as  they  have  not  been  annulled  by  the  judiciary. 

Art.  64.  Private  persons  aggrieved  b}'  acts  of  the  Municipal 
Councils  may  resort  to  the  judge,  who  shall,  by  speedy  proceedings, 
suspend  on  the  ground  of  unconstitutionality  or  illegality  the  act 
complained  of. 

Art.  65.  In  every  municipality  there  shall  be  an  alcalde,  who 
shall  exercise  the  functions  of  agent  of  the  Governor  and  who  shall 
be  the  chief  of  the  municipal  administration. 


TITLE  XIX 


Amending 

Art.  206. 


Amending 
Art.  20S. 


Amending 
Art.  204. 


Art.  66.  The  Executive  Power  shall  annually  make  up  the 
Budget  of  Revenues  and  Expenditures  and  submit  the  same  to  the 
Congress  during  the  first  ten  days  of  its  annual  session. 

Art.  67.  In  time  of  peace  no  tax  or  impost  may  be  established 
which  does  not  figure  in  the  Budget  of  Revenues,  nor  may  an)' 
payment  be  made  from  the  Treasury  which  is  not  included  in  the 
Budget  of  Expenditures. 

Art.  68.  The  Executive  Power  may  not  open  the  supplemental 
and  extraordinary  credits  treated  of  in  Article  208  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, nor  make  transfers  of  accounts  in  the  Budget,  except  under 
the  conditions  and  with  the  proceedings  established  by  law. 

Art.  69.  No  indirect  tax  or  increase  of  an  impost  of  this  kind 
shall  begin  to  be  collected  until  six  months  after  the  promulgation 
of  the  law  establishing  the  tax  or  increase. 


APPENDIX  I 


281 


TITLE  XX 

Art.  70.  The  Constitution  may  be  amended  only  by  a  Legisla- 
tive Act  first  discussed  and  approved  by  the  Congress  in  the  usual 
manner,  and  in  like  manner  considered  at  the  next  succeeding 
annual  session  and  thereat  approved,  by  both  Chambers,  after 
second  and  third  hearings,  by  an  absolute  majority  of  the  whole 
membership  of  each  of  the  Chambers. 


Amending 
Art.  209. 


TITLE  XXI 


TEMPORARY   PROVISIONS 

Art.  a.  The  inaugural  dates  of  the  next  terms  of  the  corpora- 
tions and  officers  treated  of  in  the  Constitution  and  in  the  present 
Amendatory  Act  shall  be  as  follows  : 

That  of  the  National  Congress,  July  20,  191 1, 

That  of  the  President  of  the  Republic,  August  7,  1914. 

That  of  the  Departmental  Assemblies,  March  i,  191 1. 

That  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice,  May  i,  1915.  The  present 
Assembly  shall  elect  the  two  magistrates  to  complete  the  number 
of  nine,  prescribed  by  this  Act,  and  the  term  of  all  shall  expire 
April  30,  1915. 

That  of  the  Superior  Courts,  May  i,  191 1. 

Art.  B.  The  crimes  punished  by  the  death  penalty  in  the  Penal 
Code  shall  hereafter,  and  until  otherwise  provided  by  law,  be 
punished  by  twenty  years  of  hard  labour  in  the  penitentiary. 

Art.  C.  Until  the  Congress  and  the  Assemblies  shall  have  passed 
the  corresponding  laws  and  ordinances,  the  Government  shall  make 
the  necessary  provisions  in  the  matter  of  territorial  electoral 
divisions. 

Art.  D.  Article  180  of  the  Constitution,  establishing  judges  of 
election  returns,  is  hereby  repealed. 

Art.  E.  Provisions  of  the  National  Constitution  of  August  5, 
1886,  that  are  contrary  to  this  Legislative  Act,  and  all  Legislative 
Acts  issued  by  the  National  Assembly  prior  to  the  present  Act,  are 
hereby  repealed. 

Art.  F.  Until  the  next  Congress  meets,  in  accordance  with  the 
present  Act  amendatory  of  the  Constitution,  the  present  National 
Assembly  shall  continue  in  the  performance  of  its  duties,  in  case  the 
Government  deem  it  necessary  to  convoke  it. 

Art.  G.  The  present  Legislative  Act  shall  go  into  effect,  in  so 
far  as  concerns  the  high  National  Powers,  on  its  approval,  and  for 
the  nation  at  large,  thirty  days  after  publication  in  the  Diario 
Oficial. 


Repealing 

Art.  i8o. 

General 

repealing 

clause. 


APPENDIX      II 

ABORIGINAL   LINGUISTIC   STOCKS   OF   COLOMBIA 

The  following  extracts,  translated  from  P.  Rivet' ^  Lcs  families  lin- 
guistiques  du  Nord-oucst  de  TAmcriijue  dii  Sud  {L'Anticc  lingimtique, 
tome  iv.,  1908-10,  Paris,  Klincksicck,  1912,  pp.  117-54),  will  give  an 
idea  of  the  Indian  languages  found  in  Colombia  and  of  the  most 
approved  recent  classification  of  them  : 

In  the  north-west  portion  of  South  America,  that  is  to  say,  in  the 
region  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  frontier  of  Nicaragua  and  Costa 
Rica,  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  Ecuador- 
Peru  boundary  and  the  Amazon,  and  on  the  east  by  an  imaginary 
line  corresponding  more  or  less  to  longitude  75°  West  from  Paris 
.  .  .  there  are  eleven  special  linguistic  families,  viz.  : 

I.  The  Chibcha  family. 
II.  The  Choco  family. 
III.  The  Andaqui  family. 
IV.  The  Mocoa  family. 
V.  The  Guahibo  family. 
VI.  The  Esmeraldas  family. 
VII.  The  Cahari  family. 
VIII.  The  Zaparo  family. 
IX.  The  Arda  family. 
X.  The  Jibaro  family. 
XI.  The  Cahuapana  family. 

In  addition,  one  finds  representatives  of  five  great  South  American 
linguistic  groups,  viz.  : 

A.  The  Uitoto  group. 

B.  The  Tukano  group. 

C.  The  Carib  group. 

D.  The  Arawak  group. 

E.  The  Tupi-Guarani  group. 


APPENDIX  II  283 

I.  The  Chibcha  Family  group  is,  at  the  present  time,  one  of  the 
most  important  in  South  America.  To  the  north,  it  extends  to  the 
frontier  of  Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua  ...  to  the  west,  it  reaches  to 
the  Pacific  coast,  except  in  the  region  occupied  by  the  Chocos  ;  to 
the  east  it  is  bounded  by  the  Eastern  Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  but 
not  exactly,  for  the  Betoi  of  the  Casanare  River,  wrongly  included 
by  Brinton  in  the  Betoya  group,  speak  in  reality  a  Chibcha  dialect. 
To  the  south,  by  absorption  of  the  Coconuco,  Paniquita,  and  Barbacoa 
families,  the  group  sees  its  domain  extend  southwards  to  the  latitude 
of  Guayaquil,  with  the  Western  Cordillera  as  its  eastern  boundary, 
and  as  its  western  border,  a  line  running  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Santiago  to  the  estuary  of  the  Guayas.  .  .  . 

In  resume,  according  to  the  affinities  of  the  divers  dialects  of 
this  group  I  believe  one  can  propose  the  following  classification  : 

1.  Talanianque-Barbacoa  Tongues. — Guatuso,  Cuna,  Brunca, 
Cabecar,  Tiribi,  Terraba,  Bribri,  Chiripo,  Giietare,  Colorado, 
Cayapa,   Cuaiquer,   Cara. 

2.  Paez-Coconuco  Tongues. — Totoro,  Moguex,  Paniquita,  Paez, 
Coconuco,  Guanaco. 

3.  Chibcha-Ariiak  Tongues. — Chibcha,  Duit,  Betoi,  Bintukua, 
Guamaka,  Atanques,  Koggaba,  Sinsiga  or  Tunebo. 

4.  Dorasque-Guaymi  Tongues. — Murire,  Muoi,  Sabanero,  Vahente, 
Norteiio,  Penonomeiio,  Chimila,  Chumulu,  Gualaca,  Changuina, 
Rama. 

II.  The  Chocos  inhabit  the  basin  of  the  Atrato  River  and  the 
coast  of  the  Pacific  between  the  eighth  and  fourth  degrees  of  latitude 
North.  The  documents  which  we  possess  on  their  language  and 
their  divers  dialects  are  abundant  and  in  general  excellent ;  unfor- 
tunately, they  have  not  hitherto  been  used  for  an  ensemble  study  or 
for  a  deep  research  into  the  affinities  of  this  tongue,  which  should  be 
considered  as  forming  an  independent  group.  Nothing,  in  effect, 
up  to  now  justifies  speaking  of  a  Cuna-Choco  family  as  do  some 
authors. 


III.  The  Andaqujs  inhabit  the  Eastern  Cordillera  of  Colombia 
towards  the  source  of  the  River  Fragua  between  1°  and  2°  latitude 
North.  The  only  document  which  we  possess  as  to  their  language 
is  a  small  vocabulary  gathered  by  Albis,  but  it  is  in  an  American 
review  so  rare  as  to  be  lost  for  the  majority  of  linguists.  That  is 
why  I  deem  it  not  useless  to  reproduce  it  (Appendix  I).' 

IV.  The  Mocoas  live  alongside  of  the  Andaquis  on  the  affluents 
of  the  upper  Caqueta  and   the   sources  of  the   Putumayo  :   their 


'  Not  translated. 


284  APPENDIX   II 

language  is  only  known  to  us '  by  a  list  of  four  words  belonging 
to  the  Sebondoy  dialect,  published  by  Ernst  {Zeitschrift  fiir  Ethno- 
logic, vol.  xxiii.,  1891,  at  p.  13).  Of  these  four  words,  one  is  clearly 
borrowed  from  the  Spanish  :  mazizc,  maize  ;  but  the  other  three  seem 
to  me  to  belong  to  the  Chibcha  group,  as  one  can  judge  by  the 
following  comparisons  : 

Heart,  viko  :  puyquy  {Chibcha),  yua-bika  [Biniukua),  dua-bika  = 
liver  (Aianques),  puenko  =  soul  {Colorado),  (bor)-bugwa  =: 
stomach  {Terraba),  biguin  =  veins  {Guaymi  nortcno),  bukoa 
(idem),  bugu  {Dorasqiie),  hokoa  =  liver  (Dorasquc),  huik  =: 
soul  {Boriica),  ikuan=:  liver  {Guatuso),  ixQou6  =  lung  {Rio 
Lari),  jije-ikuei  =  stomach  {Koggaba),  ikokire  =  intestines 
{Guatuso),  meeki=:  liver  {Pacz),  an-iguent  =  blood  {Mogeux), 
iki  =  breast  {Pacz),  ika  =  breast  {Brunca),  kueki  {Cuna). 
Mea.t,  minchina' :  Muysc-chimy  =  human  meat  {Chibcha),  isheni- 
wa,  shinawa  =  corpse  {Cabccar),  shin-mo  =  corpse  {Tiribi), 
uichana  =  a  dead  man  {Biniukua),  chana  {Cuna). 
Head,  visas  :  a-pisu,  a-fiso  =  hair  {Colorado),  ibsa  =  hair  {Chibcha), 

tona  iza,  ma  iza  =  hair  {Guatuso). 
In  spite  of  the  clearness  of  these  lexicographical  concordances,  I 
deem  it  prudent,  in  view  of  the  small  number  of  words  on  which  it 
rests,   to   maintain   the   Mocoa    group   as   independent   until   new 
elements  for  study  have  been  published. 

V.  In  the  GuAHlBO  linguistic  family,  I  think  one  can  group,  on 
the  one  hand,  the  Guahibo,  strictly  so-called,  and  on  the  other,  the 
Churoya,  hitherto  considered  as  an  independent  language.  The 
affinity  between  these  two  tongues,  already  glimpsed  by  Ernst  {op. 
cit.,  p.  11),  springs  from  the  following  lexicographic  similarities  : 

Churoya.  Guahibo. 

banana  parasa  palatana 

cat  misi  mizi 

chicha  kusuira  kuira 

water  menera  mera 

woman  piavichi  pihaua 

'  M.  Rivet  does  not  seem  to  have  been  aware  of  the  book  by 
Rocha,  Memorandum  de  Viajc ;  Regiones  Amazonicas  (Y^iogoiii,  1905), 
the  appendix  of  which  (pp.  195-206)  contains  vocabularies  of  various 
tongues  of  the  Caqueta  and  Putumayo  tribes,  viz.,  the  Coche  of 
Sebondoy  (a  Mocoa  dialect  ?),  the  Inga  of  the  upper  Caqueta  (a 
Quichua  dialect),  the  Ceona,  Coreguaje,  Carijona,  and  Hiutoto  or 
Uitoto.     (P.  J.  E.) 

*  This  comparison  between  meat,  human  meat,  corpse,  seems  to 
me  legitimate  because  of  the  fact  that  the  Mocoas  were  cannibals 
(cf.  T.  C.  Mosquera,  Memoir  on  the  Physical  and  Political  Geography 
of  New  Grenada,  New  York,  1853,  p.  42). 


APPENDIX  II 


285 


Churoya. 

Guahibo. 

fire 

hijit,  ijito 

izoto,  isoto 

arrow 

funait 

bumaito  =  point,  sharp, 
thorn 

man 

pevi 

pebi 

I 

ya-gue 

ja-ne,  hano 

moon 

juimit,  maometa 

uameto,  oamito 

maize 

jesa 

getza,  hetza,  gedza 

manioc 

ke-baji 

bagua 

honey 

manna 

bana 

night 

merabi 

merrabi,  merravi 

skin 

begt 

bocoto  =  bark 

sun 

guameto 

wameto 

tobacco 

joo 

ho 

earth 

asa 

atsa  =  clay 

tiger 

neguete 

neguti,  newuiti,  nebute 

one 

kai  matakavi 

kahene,    kaene,    kaijaua  ; 
matakavi  =  day 

four 

penasalavi  buba 

penaya  autsiva 

five 

kaikabebaje 

kahecobe,  kdikobe 

six 

kaikakubaje 

kaekobeta 

Of  fifty  Churoya  words  that  are  known  to-day,  twenty-four  have, 
as  one  sees  by  the  preceding  comparisons,  a  root  common  to 
corresponding  Guahibo  words.  Let  me  add  that  seven  other  words 
are  borrowed  from  divers  languages  of  the  Orinoco  and  one  from 
Quichua.  I  therefore  think  myself  justified  in  considering  Churoya 
as  a  dialect  of  Guahibo. 

Thus  extended,  the  Guahibo  family  occupies  all  the  territory  com- 
prised between  the  Orinoco,  the  Meta,  and  the  Vichada. 

The  Guahibo  group  ends  the  list  of  special  linguistic  groups, 
known  at  the  present  time,  that  belong  to  Colombia.  We  will  now 
pass  in  review  in  the  same  fashion  the  special  groups  belonging 
exclusively  to  Ecuador. 


I  have  still  to  speak  of  the  tribes  which  speak  dialects  belonging 
to  families  that  are  represented  also  in  other  regions  of  South 
America.  As  I  said  at  the  beginning,  these  tribes  come  from  five 
great  groups  ;  the  Uitoto,  the  Carib,  the  Tupi-Guarani,  the  Arawak, 
and  the  Tukano  groups. 

A.  The  Uitoto  group  is  represented  by  the  small  enclave  of  the 
Oregones  in  the  Peba  territory  on  the  Ambiyacu  River.  [The  author 
criticizes  Sir  Clements  Markham's  classification  of  a  list  of  the  tribes 
of  the  Valley  of  the  Amazons,  journal  of  the  Royal  Anthropological 
Institute,  vol.  xl.,  1910,  pp.  73-140.] 

B.  The  Caribs  are  grouped  in  two  different  regions,  one  to  the 


286  APPENDIX  II 

north,  the  other  to  the  south.  The  northern  group  is  represented 
by  the  Guaqiies,  and  the  Carijonas  of  the  sources  of  the  Yapura 
(Caquetd).  .  .  . 

The  southern  Carib  group  has  not  yet  been  pointed  out,  as  far  as 
I  am  aware.  It  is  represented  by  the  tribe  of  Patagones  and  by  the 
Peba  linguistic  group,  heretofore  considered  as  forming  an  inde- 
pendent family.  The  Patagones  occupied  the  region  where  the 
town  of  Jaen  was  founded,  that  is  to  say,  the  banks  of  the  Amazon 
to  the  point  where  the  river  suddenly  changes  direction  and  flows 
due  east,  and  the  lower  courses  of  the  tributaries  which  it  receives 
at  this  level :  the  Chamaya,  the  Utcubamba,  the  Chinchipe,  and  the 
Tabaconas.  .  .  . 

C.  The  GuARANi  group  of  the  Upper  Amazon  is  represented  by 
the  Omagiias  or  Campevas,  the  Cocamas  or  Ucayalcs,  the  Cocamillas 
or  Cacamas  of  the  Huallaga  or  Hiiallagas,  the  Yurimaguas  or 
Ziirimaguas.  All  these  peoples  are  distributed  along  the  length 
of  the  Maranon  and  in  its  islands,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Putumayo 
on  the  east  to  the  mouth  of  the  Huallaga  on  the  west,  and  along 
the  lower  courses  of  the  last-named  river  and  of  the  Ucayali. 
Their  language  is  but  little  differentiated  from  that  of  other  Tupi- 
Guarani  idioms. 

D.  The  Arawak  family  is  represented,  in  the  territory  under 
review,  to  the  north  by  a  series  of  peoples  who  occupy  the  banks 
of  the  Guaviare  River,  and  the  best  known  of  whom  are  the  Piapocos 
and  the  Achagiias,  and  to  the  south  by  the  Tikunas.  The  latter 
are  settled  on  both  sides  of  the  Amazon ;  on  the  right  bank, 
between  the  Amazon  and  the  lower  Yavari,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Caballococha  ;  on  the  left  bank,  between  the  River  Ambiyacu 
and  the  River  Atacuari,  on  the  affluents  of  the  latter,  the  Yacanga 
and  the  Yanayaquina.  Upon  analysis,  their  language,  formerly 
considered  as  forming  an  independent  famity,  appears  to  be  a  very 
corrupt  dialect  of  Arawak. 

Yl.  The  TuKAXO  linguistic  family  is  here  represented  by  an 
ensemble  of  tribes  which  form  its  western  group.  These  tribes 
occupy  the  basin  of  the  Aguarico,  thence  both  banks  of  the  Napo 
from  its  confluence  with  the  Aguarico  to  its  mouth  at  the  Maraiion  ; 
they  likewise  inhabit  the  whole  basin  of  the  Putumayo  from  its 
source  to  its  confluence  with  the  River  Yaguas  ;  their  southern 
boundary  is  formed  by  the  River  Mazan  and  by  a  line  between  the 
Napo  and  the  Putumayo,  which  would  join  the  mouth  of  tiie  Mazan 
to  that  of  the  Yaguas.  Betoya  tribes  likewise  live  on  the  upper 
Caqueta  and  its  affluents  on  both  shores  as  far  as  about  74° 
longitude. 

Such  are,  enumerated  as  briefly  as  possible,  the  divers  linguistic 
families  of  the  north-west  region  of  South  America.    It  will  be 


APPENDIX  II  287 

remarked  that  I  do  not  include  the  Quichua  family.  This  inten- 
tional omission  demands  a  word  of  explanation,  for  it  may  surprise 
the  reader. 

It  is  certain  that  at  the  present  time  Quichua  is  spoken  at  a 
great  many  places  in  the  territory  we  have  just  covered.  To  the 
north,  it  is  found  amongthc  Andaqui  Indians  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  State  of  Tolima  ;  to  the  east,  in  the  whole  upper  Napo  region, 
among  the  Quijos  Indians  and  on  the  upper  Amazon  ;  finally,  in  the 
whole  inter-andine  valley  of  Ecuador,  Quichua  is,  at  the  present  time, 
the  only  Indian  tongue  in  use  ;  but,  and  one  cannot  insist  too 
strongly  on  the  point,  this  diffusion  of  Quichua  is  of  a  relatively 
recent  date  and  certainly  subsequent  to  the  discovery.  It  was  the 
missionaries  who  introduced  the  language  of  the  Incas  in  all  these 
regions.  For  territories  like  the  Andaqui  country,  the  upper  Napo, 
the  upper  Amazon,  which  were  never  conquered  by  the  sovereigns 
of  Cuzco,  the  fact  does  not  need  to  be  proven,  the  more  so  as 
in  these  regions  we  nearly  always  find,  alongside  of  the  imported 
language  (the  official  language,  one  might  say),  the  local  language, 
which  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  priests  has  not  been  completely 
supplanted. 

For  the  regions  like  the  Ecuadorian  inter-andine  valley,  which 
formed  part  of  the  Peruvian  Empire  for  nearly  a  century  and  in 
which,  at  the  present  time,  no  other  idiom  has  persisted  besides  the 
Quichua,  the  fact,  though  less  evident,  is  no  less  certain  ;  indisputable 
documents  published  by  the  Ecuadorian  historian  Gonzales  Suarez, 
and  which  I  have  reproduced  {Journal  dc  la  Socicie  des  Americanistes 
dc  Paris,  nouv.  scrie  iv.,  1907,  pp.  31,  32),  prove  in  effect  that  at  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century  Quichua  had  not  yet  become  general 
throughout  the  upper  plateau  ;  at  that  epoch,  the  local  languages 
were  still  so  widespread  that  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  deemed  it 
useful  to  have  catechisms  written  in  the  divers  dialects. 

Unfortunately,  these  precious  documents  have  been  lost,  and  in 
order  to  succeed  in  establishing  the  affinities  of  these  languages 
which  have  completely  disappeared,  the  linguist  has  at  his  disposal 
only  a  few  rare  meanings  of  place  names.  In  certain  cases,  never- 
theless, the  study  of  such  material,  insufficient  as  it  is,  permits  one 
to  draw  positive  conclusions.  It  is  thus  that  I  have  shown  that  the 
language  of  the  Caras  was  to  all  appearances  a  Barbacoa  dialect  and 
consequently  Chibcha. 

It  is  possible  that  some  day  one  may  likewise  be  able  to  draw 
deductions  from  the  meagre  materials  that  we  possess  as  to  the 
Canari. 

In  other  cases,  one  must  have  recourse  to  the  toponomy.  Finally, 
sometimes  it  is  in  the  narratives  of  the  ancient  chroniclers  that  one 
can  find  the  useful  guide-post  leading  to  the  identification  of  these 


288  APPENDIX  II 

languages.     It  is  thus,  for  example,  that  I  have  been  able  to  associate 
the  Paltas  with  the  Jibaro  group. 

Such  is  the  actual  state  of  our  knowledge  as  to  the  north-west 
region  of  South  America.  It  is  to  be  supposed  that  many  simplifi- 
cations have  still  to  be  made  and  that  a  certain  number  of  groups, 
which  I  must  still  consider  as  independent,  will  little  by  little  dis- 
appear by  fusion.  The  scientific  study  of  these  regions  has  scarcely 
commenced,  and  one  can  expect  that  new  materials  will  come  to 
light  in  the  future  to  complete  what  we  already  possess  and  which 
will  permit  more  extended  and  more  precise  comparative  studies.  It 
is  to  be  hoped  that  the  activities  of  our  travellers  will  not  be  diverted 
from  these  beautiful  countries,  where  so  many  interesting  problems 
await  solution,  and  where  French  exploration  has  up  to  the  present 
day  held  such  an  honourable  rank. 


SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  following  list  is  intended  merely  as  a  working  guide  to  further 
reading.  With  rare  exceptions,  it  does  not  include  official  publica- 
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those  of  the  Ministries  of  Public  Works  and  Foreign  Affairs,  Bogota, 
and  of  the  Pan-American  Union,  Washington,  are  especially  impor- 
tant. The  books  marked  with  a  ^■'-  contain  bibliographies  of  value. 
Kegel's  list  is  especially  valuable  for  the  technical  literature  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  dates  given  below  are  usually  those  of  the 
first  edition  or  of  the  latest  or  best. 

See  also  the  bibliographical  notes  on  pp.  19,  21,  26,  28,  32,  35,  36, 
58,  69,  73,  16S,  233,  of  this  volume. 

HISTORY 

(The  student  must,  in  addition  to  the  special  works  on  Colombia 
here  noted,  consult  the  general  histories  of  America  or  Spanish, 
America,  especially  for  the  discovery,  conquest,  and  colonial  history, 
for  which  Jose  Toribio  Medina's  great  Biblioteca  Americana  (Santiago 
Chile,  1898-1907)  is  an  indispensable  guide.  See  also  Winsor's 
Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,^'  The  Cambridge  Modern 
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General  Joaquin  Acosta,     Bogota,  1901. 

General  Antonio  Nariiio. 

AcosTA  Y  Calvo,  J.  J.     Caldas.     Paris,  1852. 

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noticias  del   Peru,    Terra   Firme,  Chile  y    Nuevo    Reino   de 

Granada.     Madrid,  1740. 
Alfaro,  R.  J.    General  Tomas  Herrera.     Barcelona,  1909. 
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Popayan,  1907. 
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INDEX 


Abibe,  Sierra   de  :   coal   deposits, 

164 
AcosTA,  JOAQ.,  260 
Aerial  railway,  119 
Agencies,  foreign  commercial,  126, 

130 
Agriculture,   20,   27,    138-57,  215, 

217.  232,  253,  255 
Agua  Clara  River,  165 
Aguardiente,  148 
Aguirre,  Lope  de,  31 
Ahruaco  Indians,  185 
Ajaju  River,  241 
Alcaldes,  59-61 
Alcohol,  148 
Alfalfa,  215 
Algarroba  bean,  178 
Allen,  A.  A.,  quoted,  208 
Alligators,  240 
Altitude,  effect  of,  138,  139  ;  high 

altitudes   sought  by    the  Span- 
iards, 199  ;  see  Climate 
Amaga,  railroad,  97,  114,  119;  coal 

at,  163 
Amalfi  mines,  170 
Amazon  River  and  watershed,  5, 

6,  7,  10,  179,  212,  228,  229,  237- 

47  ;    Colombia's  claims,  53,  245 
Ambalema,  98,  211 
American      miners,      169,      173  ; 

traders,  213 
Amusements,  203,  221,  222 
Anaime,  210 
Anxizar,  5,  263 
Andagoya,  16 
Andagueda  River,  165 
Andean  regions,  199-227 
Andes  (mountains),  5-12,  197  ;  see 

Central,  Eastern,  and   Western 

Cordilleras 


Andes  (town),  coal  at,  153 

Andre,  5 

Anglo-Colombian  Development 
Company,  165,  175 

Anglo-Colombian  Investment 
Company,  173 

Angostura,  Congress  at,  36 

Anori  mines,  170,  172 

Anti-American  feeling,  48-51 

Antioquia  (Department),  9,  62, 
118,  146,  155,  200-3,  249,  251, 
252  ;  character  of  population, 
200,  205,  214;  possible  outlet  to 
Pacific,  194 ;  mineral  wealth, 
164,  168-72 

Antioquia  railroad,  96,  1 14 

Antioquia  (town),  118 

Antioquian  colonies,  107,  201,  205, 
210,  211  ;  traders,  136,  200; 
miners,  169,  171 

Apoporis  River,  240,  241 

Apure  River,  10 

Araracuara  rapids,  244 

Arauca,  63,  229,  233 

Arauca  River,  229,  233 

Arauquita,  233 

Arboleda,  266 

Arboletes,  lignite  deposits,  164 

Archaeological  remains,  208,  226 

Area,  62,  63 

Ariari  River,  238 

Arl\s  Davila,  Pedro,  16 

Ariguani  River,  153 

Aristocratic    families,     199,     206 

215 
Armenia,  9,  203 
Arracachas,  154,  218 
Arracataca  River,  153 
Arranca  Plumas,  97 
Art  School,  254 


INDEX 


303 


Asphalt,  164,  2  lo 

Assay  offices,  171,  202 

Assembly,  National,  66 

Atabapo  River,  237 

Atlantic  Coast  Region,    139,    155, 

156,  181-92 
Atlantic  Fruit  Company,  184 
Atlantic  Ocean,  2 
Atlantico   (Department),   62,    i8g, 

251,  252 
Atrato  Canal,  192,  193 
Atrato  River,  192-4 
Atures  rapids,  237 
Australian  miners,  174 
Automobiles,  97,  102 
Ayapel,  139 
Ayuniamienio,  59,  60 

Badillo,  19 

Balata,  178,  239 

Balboa,  15,  16 

Baldios  (Government  lands),  177- 

80,  232 
Banana  industry,  91,  92,  119,  124, 

125,    152,  183-5,  192,   204,   205, 

218 
Banco,  9,  92,  95,  187 
Banco  Central,  77,  86,  108 
Banco  Nacional,  73,  74 
Banks  and  banking,  73,  77,  84-7, 

210,  220 
Barbacoas,  109,  196 ;  mining,  165, 

174 
Barranquilla,  62,  86,  90,   91,    155, 

187,  188 
Barranquilla    Railway    and    Pier 

Company,  90,  114,  118,  183 
Barrigon,  236 
Bast  I  DAS,  13,  16 
Baudo  mountains,  7,  194 
Baudo  River,  193 
Bavaria  brewery,  219 
Beans,  146,  202 
Bebara  River,  165 
Belalcazar    (Benalcazar),    18,    19, 

199 
Bello,  70 
"  Black  water,"  240 
Blackleg,  142 
Blaine,  47 
Bodega  Central,  96 
Bogota,  18,  62,  86,  102,  117,  199, 

216,    236,     253 ;     founded,    18  ; 

during  War  for  Independence, 

33>  36;  public  buildings,  65,  66; 


climate  and  altitude,  220,  221  ; 

social  and  intellectual  life,  219 

seq. ;  trade  and  industries,  220, 

221  ;  population,  220 ;  excursions, 

224 
Bogota  River,  225 
Bogota,  tableland  of,  11,  216,  217  ; 

agriculture,  140,  141 
Bolivar  (Department),  62,  118,  139, 

189-91,  251-2 
Bolivar,  Simox,  34-9,  42,  47,  48 
Bonanza,  record,  174 
Bonds,  Government,  82,  83  ;  rail- 
road, 90,  91,  92,  98-100,  102,  103, 

114 
Bonpland,  4 

Book-stores  in  Bogota,  222 
Boria,  President,  25 
Botany,  3,  254 

Boundaries,  2,  52-4,  197,  207 
Boussingault,  5,  207 
Boyaca  (Department),  62,  102,  155, 

212,  215,  216,  251,  252 
Boyaca,  battle,  35 
Brazil,   boundary   with,    2  ;   trade 

with,  240  scq. 
Breitung  Mines  Corporation,  169 
Brissox,  5,  233 
Bryce,  quoted,  246 
Bucaramanga,  11,63,  ^S>  9^>  ^o-» 

103,  117,  174,  214;  railway,  see 

Puerto  Wilches 
Buccaneers,  20,  21,  26 
Budgets  :  local  and  departmental, 

64,  65  ;  national,  80 
Buenaventura,  108,  109,  119,  179, 

194,  195,  204 ;   customs   duties, 

134 ;  discovery,  16 
Buga,  205,  206 
Bunau-Varila,  50 
Butter,  142 

Cable  at  Buenaventura,  195 

Cacao,  151,  185,  194,  196,  204,  205, 
210,  214,  218,  233 

Caceres,  coal  at,  163  ;  gold  dredg- 
ing,  169 

Cagiidn  River,  239 

Calamar  (on  Magdalena  River),  90, 

Calamar  (on  Unilla  River),  239 
Caldas  (Department),  62,  64,  155, 

201,  203,  249,  25/,  252 
Caldas  (town),  97 
Caldas,  4,  201,  254,  259,  260 


304 


INDEX 


Caledonia  Bay,  28 

Cali,  62,  86,  108, 109,  118,  195,  206; 
coal-beds,  163 

Camacho  Roldan,  263 

Cambao  road,  99,  217 

Canal,  see  Panama,  Atrato 

Cane,  quoted,  267 

Cannibals,  284 

Canning,  38 

Capital,  need  of  foreign,  131 

Capitol,  65,  66 

Caqueta  River,  5,  53,  233,  237,  239, 
241,  242,  243 

Caqueta  Territory,  lo,  63,  241-7 

Carabobo,  battle  of,  38 

Carare  River  and  Indians,  215 ; 
coal,  163 

Catate,  208 

Carib  Indians,  181,  and  App.  II 

Caribbean  Sea,  2 

Caribe  (cannibal  fish),  241 

Carmen,  190 

Caro,  J.  E.,  262,  266 

Caro,  M.  a.,  41,  262,  263 

Carretera  Central  del  Norte,  102 

Cartagena,  86,  89,  155,  179,  183, 
188,  189,  253;  foundation,  14, 15, 
16 ;  fleets  at,  20 ;  sacked  by 
Drake,  25,  188 ;  attacked  by 
buccaneers,  26, 188  ;  by  Vernon, 
27,  188;  Inquisition,  26,  188; 
walls,  29,  189;  during  War  for 
Independence,  34,  38, 189 

Cartagena    Railway,   90,    91,   114, 

118,  189 

Cartago,  105,  107,  108,  118,  204,209 

Casanare,  10,  139,  229-36 

Cascada  Mine,  172 

Casement,  Sir  R.,  242 

Casiquiare  River,  237 

Cassava,  237 

Castro,  52 

Catatumbo  River,  103 

Catholic    religion,    43,    250 ;     see 

Missions 
Cattle,  105,  118,  137,  139,  140,  156, 

181,  189,  190,  203,  204,  205,  210, 

211,  217,  230,  231 
Ceniza  mouth  of  Magdalena,  188 
Census,  62,  63 
Central  Cordillera,  6,  8,  9,  105,  107, 

119,  197,  204,  210;  mining,  159, 
163, 168-73,  207 

Cerruti  claim,  55 
Certegui  River,  165 


Cesar,  19 

Cesar  River,  92,  95,  186 

Chameza  saltworks,  159 

Champan,  104 

Chaparral,  210 

Chapetones,  33 

Chapman,  F.  M.,  5 

Chaves,  172 

Cheese,  142 

Chibchas,  conquest  of,  17,  18,  215, 

225  ;  salt  mined  by,  159 
Chicha,  148,  218 

Chile,  friendly  relations  with,  54 
Chiles  (mt.),  7 
Chiquinquira,  100,  215 
Chiriguana,  187 
Chita  (mt.),  ii ;  saltworks,  159 
Choco,  5,  63,   192-4  {sec   Daricn) 

mines,  165,  174 
Chocolate,  see  Cacao 
Cienaga,  183 
CiEZA  DE  Leon,  3 
Cinchona,  73,  241 
Circasia,  9 

Ciudad  Bolivar  (Venezuela),  236 
Civil  law,  69 
Civil  servants,  79,  80 
Clergy,  in  politics,  40 ;  influence 

of,  224,  250,  251,  261 
Chmate,    138,  139,    171,    174,  175, 

184,  185,  188,    192-7,   208,  212, 

216,  217,  220,  231,  236,  238,  239, 

240,  245 
Coal,  100,  loi,  108,  163,  164,  171, 

182,  187,  218 
Coast  line,  2  ;  discovery,  13  ;  zones, 

138,  139 

Coca,  186 

Cocoa,   see  Cacao 

Coconucos,  paramo  de,  105 

Coconuts,  191 

Cocui,  Sierra  Nevada  de,  11 

Cocuy  hilJs,  7 

CODAZZi,  5,  208,  263 

Codes,  69 

Coffee :  importance,  149 ;  excel- 
lence, 150,  217  ;  where  grown,  8, 
II,  102,  149,  156,  185,  193,  201, 
203,  205,  210,  212-14,  217,  218, 
236  ;  trade  in,  124,  125,  149 

Colombia,  name,  13,  39,  40 

Colombian  Central  Railway  Com- 
pany, 100 

Colombian  Emerald  Mining  Com- 
pany, Ltd.,  160 


INDEX 


305 


Colombian  Mining  and  Exploration 

Company,  172 
Colombian       National       Railway 

Company,  99 
Colombian       Northern      Railway 

Company,  100 
Colombian      Southern      Railway, 

Ltd.,  100 
Colonial  history,  19-30 
Colonics,  revolt  of,  29,  131 
Columbus,  13 
Comision  Corografica,  5 
Commerce,  123-37 
Commercial  law,  69,  70 
Commercial  travellers,  132,  136 
Commission  merchants,  124,  126, 

130 
Comuncros,  uprising  of  the,  30,  32 
Condoto  River  placers,  165 
Congress,  66,  67 
Conquest,  Spanish,  13-20 
Consejos  municipales,  59,  60 
Conservative  party,  39-43 
Consorcia  Albingia,  192 
Constancia  Mine,  172 
Constitution,  38-41,  57,  58,  66,  67, 

249  ;    1 9 10  amendments   trans- 
lated, 271-81 
Consular  service,  55,  56 
Copper,  164,  187,  216 
Cordilleras,  sec   Eastern,    Central, 

Western 
Corinto,  241 
Corn,  Indian,   145,  202,  215,  218, 

233 
Corozal,  189 
Corruption,  60 
Cortes,  S.,  255 
CosA,  Juan  de  la,  13 
Cosquez  emerald  mines,  161 
Cotton,  153,  188,  202 
Courts,  67,  68 
Credit      currency,     undeveloped, 

84,8^ 
Credits,  commercial,  130,  131 
Crevaux,  5,  233,  242 
Criminal  law,  70 
Cucuta,    II,    103,   212,  213,    229; 

projected  railway  to  the  Magda- 

lena,  117,  213  ;  customs  duties, 

134  ;  Congress  at,  38 
Cucuta  Railway,  103,  114,  115,  213 
Cuervo,  J.  R.,  255 
Cuervo  Marquez,  C,  255 
Cumaral  salt-mines,  159,  160 


Cumbal  (mt.),  7 

Cundinamarca    (Department),  62, 

64,  102,  148,    155 ;    plateau,   99, 

212, 215-27,  251,  252 
Cupica,  194 
Currency,  72-9 
Customs  duties,  80,  133,  134,  230, 

236 
Cyanide  process  introduced,  171 

Dagua  River,  6 

Dairying,  142,  217 

Dalfinger,  19 

Darien,  still  unexplored,  5;  Spanish 

colony  at,  14,  16 ;  Scots  colony, 

27,  28  ;  port  improvements,  119, 

191,  192  ;  see  Choco 
Debt,  foreign,  81-3 
Debt,  internal,  81,  83,  84 
Degenhardt,  5 
Delgado,  Padre,  230,  233 
D'Elhuyar,  173 
Democratic  feeling,  218 
Departments,  61-5 
Designados,  59 
Dictators,  38,  40,  42 
Diplomatic  relations,  47-56 
Dique,  81,  188,  190 
Discovery  by  Spaniards,  13-20 
Dii'i-divi,  182 
Dommicans,  25 
Dorada    Railway    Compan}',     97, 

114,  119,  210 
Drake,  25 
Drama,  Colombian,  undeveloped, 

264 
Dredging,  169,  174,  175 
Drink,  148,  218,  223 
Dupar  Valley,  95,  120,  186 

Earthquakes  at  Cucuta,  212 
Eastern    Cordillera,    5,    6,    9,  10, 

102,  120,  212,  238,  244  ;  mining, 

159,  161,  163,  173 
Eastmax,  Dr.,  quoted,  79 
Echandia  mines,  172 
Economists,  Colombian,  263 
Ecuador,  union  with,  37  ;  secedes, 

39 ;  diplomatic    relations    with, 

53.  54  ;  frontier,  197,  207 
Eder,  C.  J.,  138 
Education,    248-57,  269,   270  ;    in 

the  colony,  24,  25,  29  ;  missions 

in    Goajira,    183  ;    in   Medellin, 

203 ; in  Boyaca  216 


21 


306 


INDEX 


Ehixger,  19 

El  Dorado,  16,  226 

Electric    development,    159,    172, 

187,  189,  202,213,  214,  215,  221, 

225 
Eliconia,  coal  at,  163 
Emeralds,  160-2,  216 
England,  trade  with,  124-30,  133, 

213 
English  explorers,  5  ;  miners,  170, 

173 

Exchange,  fluctuations  in,  72,  75, 
7^^.  781  79  ;  foreign  bills  used  for 
domestic  business,  85 

Executive  Power,  58,  65  ;  see  Con- 
stitution 

Exports,  73,  123-9,  181,  184    187, 

189,  195,  196,  213 

Facatativa,  99 

Fairs,  137 

Fallon, 267 

Federal  form  of  Government,  37, 

40  ;  see  Constitution 
Federmann,  18,  19 
Ferdinand  VII,  33 
Fernandez  de  Enciso,  15 
Fernandez  Madrid,  266 
Fibre,  154 

Fiction,  Colombian,  265 
Finances,  national,  77-84 
Florencia,  244 
Foreign  affairs,  47-56 
Foreign  claims,  55 
Foreigners  in  Colombia,  55,    169, 

180,    269 ;    see    also     Germans, 

English,  etc. 
Forests,     utilization     of,     177-80, 

190,  215,  233,  236  ;  description 
of,  208,  209,  245  ;  Amazon  forest- 
belt,  237-47 

FraiJejon,  217 

Francia   Gold   Mining    Company, 

174 
France,  trade  with,  124-9,  ^3^ 
Fredonia,  coal  at,  163 
Freiberg  process,  173 
Freight  rates,  loi,  115;  obstacles 

to  trade,  133  ;  and  to  agriculture, 

151,  197,  207 
French  explorers,  5  ;  miners,  169, 

171,  174 
Fresle,    quoted    (version    of    El 

Dorado),  226 
Fresno,  210 


Frias  Mine,  173,  210 

Frontiers,  2,  52-4 

Frontino  and  Bolivia  mines,  170 

Fruits,  222 

Fundacion  River,  92,  153 

Garza  plumes,  236 

Geographical  exploration,  history 

of>  3-5,  233 

Germans:  explorers,  5;  occupation 
of  Venezuela  by,  19 ;  in  bank- 
ing business,  87 

Germany,  friendly  feeling  for,  55  ; 
in  trade,  124,  131,  132,  187,213, 
219  ;  improvements  on  Gulf  of 
Darien,  192 ;  commerce  with, 
124,  125,  127,  128 

Girardot,  98,  104,  107 

Girardot  railway,  98,  99,  iii,  114, 
217 

Goajira  peninsula,  6,  11,63,  120; 
coal  deposits,  164,  181,  182,  251 

Goajiro  Indians,  181-3 

Goats,  216,  217 

Gold,  27,  73,  79  ;  exports,  124,  158, 
164,  166-76  196 ;  statistics  of 
production,  167,  168 

Goldschmidt  &  Co.,  mining 
pioneers,  172 

Government,  form   of,  37,  39,  40, 

57-67 

Government  ownership  of  rail- 
ways, 114,  121 

Governors,  Departmental,  59,  61 

Gran  Columbia,  La,  38 

Granger,  119,  175 

Grazing  lands,  public,  179 

Great  Central  Northern  Railway 
Company,  102 

Groot,  261 

Guadalupe  (mt.),  224 

Guadalupe  (town),  244 

Guaduas  Valley,  coal  in,  163 

Guainia  River,  232,  237 

Guanacas,  paramo  de,  105 

Guapi,  196 

Guatavita  Lake,  225-7 

Guaviare  River,  232,  233,  237,  240 

Guayabero  River,  10,  238 

Gutierrez,  Gonzales,  266 

Haebler,   Professor,   quoted,   20, 

21 
Hamburg  American  Line,  90,  184, 

192 


INDEX 


307 


Hay-Herran  treaty,  50 

Herons,  236 

Herring,  Graham  &  Powles,  173 

Herveo  (int.),  9 

Hettner,  5 

Hides,   export   of,    125,    143,   213, 

236 
Historians,  Colombian,  260-1 
HoHERMUTH  of  Spires,  19 
HOLGUIN,  C,  262 
Home  Rule,  59 

Honda,  97,  98,  211  ;  road,  99,  217 
Horses,  breeding,  144,  182,  217 
Huila    (Department),  62,   207-10, 

244,  251,  252 
Huila  (mt.),  8,  204,  207 
Humboldt,  4,  159,  229 
Hurricanes,  236 
HuTTEN,  Von,  19 
Hygiene,  46 

Ibague,  62,  105,  119,  210,  211 
Illiteracy,  216,  218,  240,  248 
Immigration,  need  of,  46  ;  public 

lands  suitable  for,  179 ;  deterrent 

to,  257 
Imports,    123-33,    181,    184,    187, 

189,  195,  196,  213 
Independence,  War  of,  29,  31-6 
Indiarubber,  see  Rubber 
Indian  languages,  282-8 
Indian  mines,  168 
Indians,     civilized,    8,     137,    155, 

(Ahruaco)    185,    (Pastuso)    207, 

(Huila)  209,  (Boyaca)  212,  216, 

(Bogota)  218,  223,  (Paez)  250 
Indians,  conquest  of ,  14,17-19,  21-4 
Indians,  savage:    Goajiro,   181-2 ; 

Motilones,  186,  187;    in   Choco, 

193  ;    Carare    and    Opon,    215 ; 

Casanare,  235  ;  Vaupes,  Caqueta 

and  Putumayo,  239-43 
Inirida  River,  232,  233,  237 
Inns,  88,  106 

Inquisition  at  Cartagena,  26 
Insurance  companies,  220 
Intellectual  life,  223,  248-70 
Intermarriage,  199,  200 
Ipiales,  207 
Iro  River,  165 
Iron    mines    and   foundries,    163, 

164 
Isaacs,  265 
Istmina,  194 
Itilla  (Itiya)  River,  238,  240,  241 


Ivory  nuts  (tagua),  125,  140,  193, 
i95»  196,  197.  215 

James,  mining  pioneer,  170 

Japan,  friendly  feeling  for,  55 

Jesuits,  3,  25,  29,  30,  261 

Jews,  200,  201 

Journalism,  257-9 

Juan,  Jorge,  3 

Judiciary,  67,  68 

"Junta  de  Amortizacion,  76,  78 

Junta  de  Conversion,  78 

jurado,  63 

Karsten, 5 
Koch-Grunberg,  5,  233 

La  Bolsa,  118 

La   Dorada  and   railway,   93,   97, 

114.  115 
La  Manuelita,  146,  190 
La    Pradera,  coal    at,   163  ;    iron- 
works, 164 
La  Quiebra,  96 
Labour,  shortage  of,  46,  151,  166, 

178,  201,  220  ;  organization,  60  ; 

character  of,  148,  151,  152,  161, 

175.  205,  219,  240,  256 
Las  Casas,  23 
Las  Papas,  208 
Law  and  lawyers,  68-71  ;  mining 

laws,  176,  177;  law  schools,  253, 

254.  256 
Lead,  164 

Lebrija  River,  96,  102,  214 
Legal  procedure,  68 
Legislature,  66,  67 
Leon  River,  192  ;  mineral  wealth, 

164 
Lepers,  number  of,  63 
Liberal  party,  39-43,  122 
Library,  National,  222 
Linguistic  stocks,  aboriginal,  282-8 
Literature,  205,  222,  248,  257-70 
Live  stock,  203,  205,  211,  216,  217, 

218,  230  ;  see  also  Cattle,  Horses, 

etc. 
Llaneros,  35,  235 
Llanos,  6,    10,   20,   120,    139,    143, 

228-37 
Locusts,  197 
Los  Monos,  209 

Macaya  River,  241 
Magangue,  96 


308 


INDEX 


Magdalena  River  and  Valley,  6,  9, 
105,  138,  139,  154,  178,  189,  207, 
211  ;  discovery,  16,  17  ;  travel 
and  transportation,  89-99,  104, 
112,  117,  119,  120,  169,  187,  188  ; 
headwaters,  209 

Magdalena  (Department),  62,  64, 
183-7.  251,  252 

Mahogany,  178,  190 

Maipures  rapids,  237 

Maize,  145,  202,  215,  218,  233 

Mallama,  mining  district,  173 

Manaos  (Brazil),  244 

Manihot,  237 

Manizales,  62,  86,  97,  107,  119,  172, 
203 

Maxxixg,  I.  A.,  quoted,  175 

Mafioco,  237 

Manta,  La,  Mine,  173 

Manuelita,  La,  sugar  factory,  146 

Manufactures,  187,  188,  202,  207, 
216,  219,  224 

Manzanares,  210 

Maracaibo,  13,  181  ;  navigation, 
52,  103,  117,  213 

Marble, '216 

Maria  (novel),  265 

Mariquita,  119,  173,  210 

Markets,  136,  216 

Marmato  mining  region,  172 

Marroquix,  41,  262 

Marulanda,  210 

May,  Johx,  164 

Medellin,  9,  62,  79,  86,  87,  96,  97, 
107,  119,  120,  141,  171,  194,  202, 

253 
Medical  profession,  254,  256,  257 
Medicinal  plants,  178,  233 
Medina  mountains,  234 
Mesaya  River,  241 
Meta  River,  10,  120,  229,  233,  236 
Meta  Territory,  63,  236 
Micay,  109,  196  ;  mining,  165 
Miller,  L.  E.,  quoted,  244 
Mining,  20,    27,    158-77,  182,  187, 

196,    197,    201,    202,    210,    216, 

218 
Mining  lava's,  177,  178 
Mira  River,  6,  197 
MiRAXDA,  32 

Missions,  20,  183,  241,  243,  250 
Mocoa,  244 
Molasses,  148,  217 
Mompox,  95 
Money,  72-9 


Monroe  doctrine,  38,  48 
Monserrate  (mt.),  224 

MOXTAXO,  24 

Moore,  Tyrrell,  170 

MORGAX,  26 
MoRiLLO,  General,  34 
Mortgage  banks,  85 
MosQUERA,  T.  C,  5,  39,  40,  66 
Mosquitoes,  94,  240,  245 
Motilones  Indians,  186,  187 
Mulattoes,  191,  198 
Mules,  breeding,  144,  217 
Muneque  saltworks,  159 
Municipal  government,  59,  60 
Municipalities,  number  of,  62,  63 
MURILLO  ToRO,  262 
Music,  Conservatory  of,  254 
MuTis,  3,  29,  254 
Muzo  Indians,  19 
Muzo  mines,  25,  79,  160-2,  216 

Napipi  River,  193 

Napo  River,  245 

Napoleox,  33,  34 

Nare,  96 

Narixo,  Axtoxio,  32,  260 

Narino  (Department),  63,  155,  203, 

207,  244,  251,  252 
Natural  histor}*,  3-5,  254 
Navigation,  see  Steamships 
Nazareth,  9 

Nechi  River,  95,  120 ;  mines,  169 
Negroes,  21,  23,  155,  156,  165,  175, 

184,  187,  191,  193,  197,  198,  205, 

207,  214 
Negua  River,  165 
Neiva,  62,  104,  210,  245 
Nemocon,    100 ;    salt   mines,    159, 

160  ;  coal  mines,  163 
New   Granada  :    colonial   history, 

20-30 ;     conquest    of,    18,    21  ; 

Republic  of,  39 
Newspapers,  257-9 

NiCUESA,  14 

Norte  de  Santander  (Department), 

63,  212-14,  251,  252 
Norte  (Northern)  Railway,  99-101, 

114,  120 
North  Tolima  Mining  Company, 

J  73 
Novita,  194,  209 
Nueva  Andalucia,  14 
Nuevos  Cristianos,  201 
NuxEZ  DE  Balboa,  Vasco,  15,  16 
NuxEZ,  Rafael,  41,  73,  262 


INDEX 


309 


Ocana,  ii,  96,  104,  214 

Oficina  de  Longitudes,  5 

Oil,  164,  165,  187 

Ojeda,  13-15 

Olden,  Charles,  quoted,  160 

Opon  River  and  Indians,  215 

Opon,  Sierra,  discovery,  17 

Orchids,  179 

Orinoco  River  and  watershed,  5,  6, 

7,    10,  212,  228-38  ;   navigation 

of,  52,  214,  236 
Orocue,  229,  236 

Oroville  Dredging  Company,  169 
Orteguasa    or    La   Fragua   River, 

244 
Ortiz,  266 
OspiNA,  M.,  262 
OspiNA,  T.,  255 
Oxen,  loi 

Pacho,  coal  at,  163  ;  iron,  164 

Pacific  Ocean,  2,  109 ;  discovery, 
15,  16  ;  coast  region,  138,  139, 
156,  174,  179,  192-8 

Pacific  Railway,  108,  114,  115,  121 

Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany, 196 

Pack  animals,  88,  loi 

Packing-houses,  field  for,  232 

Padavida  hills,  7 

Paez,  39 

Paez  Indians,  250 

Palmira,  190,  206 

Pamplona,  214 

Panama,  20,  47,  55, 63  ;  trade  with, 
127,  129;  secession  of,  41,49-51, 

55 
Panama  Canal,  2,  48-50,  108,  156, 

194,  204,  205,  247 
Panama  hats,  125,   154,   196,  203, 

207,  210,  214 
Pan-American  Congress,  47,  48 
Pan-American  Railway,  5, 118 
Pan-Americanism,  47,  48 
Panches  Indians,  19 
Panela,  149 
Pantano  Mine,  172 
Paper  money,  41,  72-9 
Paramos,  105,  106,  208,  209,  217 
Paschke,  R..  170 
Pasto,  8,  9,  II,  18,  34,  63,  86,  108, 

109,  118,  120,  141,  143,  172,  207, 

241,  242,  243,  244,  253 
Pasture  lands,  189,  202,  205,  207, 

217;  value,  143  ;  see  Cattle 


Paterson,  VVm.,  27,  28 

Patia  River,  8,  141,  143,  196,  197 

Pato  mines,  169 

Pedrarias,  16 

Penal  settlement,  244 

Pereira,  137,  203 

Perez  Triana,  S.,  122,  233 

Peru,  war  with,  39  ;  feeling  against, 

39>     53  ;     diplomatic    relations 

with,  52-4,  243 
Peruvian        rubber-traders,       see 

Putumayo 
Petroleum,  164,  165,  187 
Phosphates,  182 
Piar,  General,  35 
Pie  de  Gallo  Mine,  174 
Piedrahita,  Bishop,  260 
Pigs,  140,  217 
Pijao  Indians,  19 
Piracy,  stream,  237 
Pirates,  20,  25,  26, 191 
Pizarro,  14,  16 
Piano  alto,  238 
Plantains,  144,  193,  202,  204,  205, 

233 
Platina  River,  165 
Platmum  exports,  125,  166  ;  mines, 

165,  166 
Plaza,  J.  A.,  260 
Poblanco,  118 
Poetry,  205,  235,  266-8 
PoiNTis,  26 

Political  controversies,  42,  43 
PoMBO,  Rafael,  267 
Popaydn,  8,   18,  62,  86,   104,   108, 

109,  118,  196,  199,206,  210,  253 
Population,  62,  63  ;  diversity,  199, 

200 
Porce  River  placer  mines,  169 
Pore,  229,  233 
Portobello,  20,  25 
Ports,  89,  90,  91,  119,  181,  183,  188, 

191,  192,  194-6 
Posada  Gutierrez,  261 
Posada,  J.  P.,  266 
Post  and  Telegraph,  229,  244 
Precious    stones,     164  ;    sec     also 

Emeralds 
Prefects,  59-60 
Presidents,  37-42,  262 
President,  powers  of  the,  58,  59, 

65,  66,  67  ;  palace  of,  65 
Printing-presses,   introduction  of, 

259 
Prisons,  71 


310 


INDEX 


Proletariat,  60 

Prospectors,  mining,  warning  to, 

175 
Protestants  in  San  Andres,  191 
Provinces,  59-63 
Providencia  (Providence)   Island, 

190,  191 
Public  employees,  79,  80 
Public  lands,  177-80,  202 
Puerto  Bcrrio,  96,  120 
Puerto  Cana,  238 
Puerto  Cesar,  192 
Puerto  Colombia,  89,  90 
Puerto  Dagua,  118 
Puerto  Escoses,  28 
Puerto  Villamizar,  103 
Puerto  Wilches  Railway,  100,  102, 

114,  117,  121,  214 
Purace  (mt.),  8,  207 
Putumayo  atrocities,  179,  237,  242 
Putumayo  River  and  Territory,  5, 

53,   54,   63,   179,   233,   237,  241, 

242,  243,  245 

QUESADA,  GOXZALO  JiMENEZ  DE, 
17-19,  259 

QuESADA,  Herman  Perez  de,  19 

Quibdo,  191,  193 

Quicksilver,  164 

Quindio,  9,  97,    105-7,    HQ,     203, 

210 
Quinine  exports,  73,  241 

Race  prejudice,  45 

Races,  see  Indians,  Negroes, 
Mulattoes,  Spanish 

Railways,  89-122;  statistics,  114, 
115  ;  waste  in  past  construction, 
III,  112  ;  capital  for,  116;  sub- 
sidies, 113,  116,  120-2 

Rainfall,  see  Climate,  Seasons 

Rancheria  River,  181 

Recetor  saltworks,  159 

Reclus,  5  ;  quoted,  135 

Recognition,  38 

Reiss,  5 

Religion  and  politics,  40,  42-5 

Remedies  mines,  170 

Restrepo,  J.  M.,  260 

Restrepo,  President,  42 

Restrepo  Tirado,  E.,  255 

Restrepo,  V.,  estimate  of  min- 
eral production,  167 

Revenues,  local,  61-5 ;  national, 
61,  80,  159 


Revolutions,  31,  40-6  ;  ice  Inde- 
pendence 

Reyes,  5,  42,  76,  78,  83,  102,  233, 
242 

Rice,  202,  233 

Rice,  Dr.,  5,  233,  240 

Rio  Hacha,  6,  25,  120,  181,  182, 
187 

Rio  Negro  (river),  232,  237,  239, 
240 

Rivet,  quoted,  282-8 

Roads,  9,  88,  89,  97,  loi,  104,  105, 
106,  112,  154,  214,  216,  238,  244 

ROBLEDO,  19 

Rodriguez  Fresle,  quoted  (ver- 
sion of  El  Dorado),  226 

Rosario  College,  25,  253 

Rothlisberger,  Professor,  quoted 
(view  of  llanos),  233 

Rubber,  53,  125,  178,  179,  193, 197, 
205,  210,  213,  233,  236,  237,  239, 
240,  242 

Ruiz  (mt.),  9 

Sabaletas,  coal  at,  163 

Sabana   of    Bogota,    98-101,    217, 

224 ;    Sabana  railway,   99,    100, 

114  ;  coal  found,  163 
Sabanalarga,  189 
Saffray,  5 
Salaries,  248,  256 
Salavarrieta,  Policarpa,  265 
Salt,  100,  159,  160,  182,  213,  218 
Samaca,  coal  at,  163 
Samaniego  mining  district,  173 
Samper,  J.  M.,  quoted,  223 
Samper,  Miguel,  263 
San  Agustin,  208 
San  Andres  (St.  Andrew's)  Islands, 

190,  191 
San  Jose,  238,  239 
San  Juan  River,    6,  7,    193,    195 ; 

platinum   deposits,    165  ;    gold, 

174,  195,  238 
San  Martin,  10,  139,  229,  238 
San  Nicolas  Mine,  171 
San  Sebastian,  14 
Sanclemente,  President,  41 
Sanitation,  46,   184,   188,  193,   194, 

221,  236,  247,  250,  257 
Santa  Ana  Mine,  173 
Santa  Fe,  see  Bogota 
Santa  Isabel  (mt.),  9 
Santa  Maria  (mt.),  9 
Santa  Maria  de  Darien,  15 


INDEX 


311 


Santa  Marta  (inn),  209 

Santa  Marta  (city),  25,  62,  85,  gr, 

153. 155.  182,  183,  184  ;  founded, 

16 
Santa  Marta  Railway,  91, 114, 183  ; 

possible  extension,  118,  121,  153 
Santa  Marta,  Sierra  Nevada  de,  7, 

139.  143.  i47>  151.  152,  156,  181, 

185-7  ;  coal  deposits,  164 
Santa  Rosa,  102,  216 
Saxtander,  President,  35-9 
Santander    (Department),   63,   64, 

155,  212-15.  251,  252  ;   mining, 

168 
Santander  (town),  206 
Sarare  River,  233 
Sarsaparilla,  241 
Savanilla,  89,  90 
Savings  Banks,  85 
Saw  mills,  178,  190,  194,  196 
School  of  Mines,  171,  253 
Schools,  249  seq. 
Sciences,    Natural,      neglect    of, 

?54..255 

Scientists,  Colombian,  254,  255 

Scots  Darien  Colony,  27,  28 

Seasons,  138,  139,  231,  239,  245  ; 
see  Climate 

Selfridge,  5 

Selvas,  6,  10,  228,  237-47 

Senate,  66 

Serrejon,  coal  deposits,  164 

Servants,  domestic,  222 

Sesquile  saltworks,  159 

Sevilla  River,  153 

Sheep,  216,  217 

Shipping,  183,  187;  see  Steamships 

Sibundoy,  244 

Sierra  Nevada  de  S.  Marta,  see 
Santa  Marta 

SlEVERS,  5 

Silver  :  currency,  73  ;  production, 
166  ;  in  Tolima,  173 ;  Frias 
mine,  173  ;  Zancudo  mine,  171  ; 
exports,  124  ;  mines  and  depo- 
sits, 164,  171,  173 

SiMOXS,  5 

Sincelejo,  118,  189 
Sincerin,  146,  190 
Sinu   River.   6,    15,    190 ;   mineral 

wealth,    164 ;    forest   products, 

178,  190 
Sispata,  190 

Situation  of  Colombia,  2 
Slavery,  negro,  21,  23,  43,  174 


Smuggling,  22,  31,  134,  230 

SoETBEER,  Dr.,  estimate  of  mineral 
production,  167 

Sogamoso,  120 

Sogamoso  River,  179,  214,  215 

Solferino  Mine,  172 

Somondoco  emerald  mines,  161 

Sonson,  203 

Sotard  (mt.),  8,  206 

Southern  {Sur)  Railway,  99-101, 
114,225 

Spain,  trade  with,  126-8 

Spaniards,  20,  22  ;  diversity  of 
races,  199 

Spanish  colonial  policy,  20-30 

Spanish  conquest,  13-20 

Spanish  mines,  168,  170,  174 

Spira,  Jorge  (Hohermuth),  19 

State  sovereignty,  38,  40  ;  abol- 
ished, 41 

Steamships :  ocean,  89,  90,  91, 
109,  183  ;  river,  93,  95,  108,  118, 
169,  175,  187,  192,  193,  196,  213, 
231,  236,  237,  238,  242,  244 

Stoepel,  Dr.,  208 

Stubel,  5 

Suaza  hats,  210 

Sucre,  39 

Sugar,  139,  146,  155,  156,  185,  190, 
202,  205,  211,  217,  233 

Suma  Paz,  Cerro  de  la,  coal  at, 
163 

Supia  mines,  172 

Supreme  Court,  67 

Sur  Railway,  99-101,  114,  225 

Swine,  140,  217 

Tagua,  140,  193,  195,  196,  197,  215 

Tamalameque,  104,  117 

Tamana  River,  165 

Tanning,  143 

Tariff,  133,  134 

Tarqui,  battle  of,  39 

Tausa  saltworks,  159 

Taxation,  61,  64,  65 

Teachers,  248,  252 

Telembi  River,  196 

Temperature,  106,   138,    139,   188, 

245  ;  see  Climate 
Tequendama  falls,  225 
Timber,  178-80,  190,  194,  196 
Timbiqui,  174 
Tin,  164 
Titiribi,   1 19  ;    coal   at,    163  ;  gold 

and  silver,  171 


312 


INDEX 


Titles,  land,  156,  157,  235 

Tobacco,   125,  190,  203,  205,  211 

Tolima  (Department),  63,  143, 155, 
207,  210,  251,  252  ;  mining,  168, 
173  ;  character  of  population,  21 1 

Tolima  (mt.),  9 

Tolima  Railway,  105,  114,  119 

Tolu,  balsam  of,  178 

Trade,  foreign,  123-31  ;  domestic, 
124,  135-7  >  i"  Caqueta  region, 
243,  244 

Transportation,  88-122 ;  lack  of 
facilities  an  obstacle  to  trade, 
133  ;  to  agriculture,  143,  151, 
i53>  i54>  156  ;  to  mining,  160, 
164, 175  ;  to  forest  utilization,  178 

Travel,  88-122  ;  safety  of,  71  ; 
equipment,  94,  95  ;  see  also 
Transportation 

Tkiana,  254 

Truando  River,  193 

Tucurinca  River,  153 

Tulua,  206 

Tumaco,  108,  109,  156,  179,  196; 
customs  duties,  134 

Tunahi  hills,  7 

Tunja,  62,  120,  215  ;  sacred  lake, 
225 

Tuquerres,  207 

Ulloa,  Antonio  de,  3,  165 

Unilla  River,  240 

United  Fruit  Company,  153,  183- 

5.  192 

United  States  of  America,  diplo- 
matic relations  with  and  Latin 
American  policy,  47-51,  55; 
trade  with,  124-30 

Universities,  253-7 

Upin  saltworks,  159,  160 

Uraba,  Gulf  of,  14 ;  territory,  63  ; 
projected  railroad  to,  119; 
improvements  at,  119,  153  ;  coal 
deposits,  164,  191 

Urike-Uribe,  Rafael,  41,  54,  258 

Uricoechea,  255 

Ursua,  Pedro  de,  19,  214 

Vadillo  (Badillo),  19 
Valle  (Department),  63,  203-6,  249, 
251-  252 


Valledupar,  95,  120,  186 

Vargas  Vergara,  J.  M.,  quoted, 

232,  241 
Vaupes  River  and   Territory,  63, 

237,  240,  241 
Vegetable  ivory,  125,  140,  193,  196, 

215 

Vela,  Cape  de  la,  13,  14 

Venezuela,  union  with,  37  ;  se- 
cedes, 39;  diplomatic  relations 
with,  52,  214  ;  railroad  to  fron- 
tier, 117,  213  ;  frontier,  230 

Venero  de  Leiva,  Governor,  24 

Vergara,  J.  M.,  259 

Vergara  y  Velasco,  5 

Vernon,  Admiral,  27-9 

Vespucci,  13 

Viceroys,  27 

Vichada  River,  10,  233,  237 

Villavicencio,  236,  238 ;  coal  at, 
163 

Vinagre  River,  207 

Waupes  River,  63,  237,  240,  241 

Wax-palm,  105 

Welsers,  grant  of  Venezuela  to, 

19 
Wentworth,  General,  27 
Western  Andes  Mining  Company 

172 
Western  Cordilleras,  5-8, 194,  196, 

204;  mining,  159,  163,  172,  196, 

197 
Wheat  and  barley,  152,  202,  207, 

215,  217,  218 
White,  R.  B.,  5  ;  quoted,  175 
Woods,  178-80,  190 
Woodsmen,  expert,  178 
Wool,  216 

Ynirida  River,  232,  233,  237 
Yucca,  154,  202,  237 

Zancudo  Mine,  170,  171 
Zaragoza,  120;  coal  at,  163  ;  placer 

mines,  169 
Zea,  254,  260  ;  quoted,  38,  39 
Zipaquira,    100  ;    saltworks,     159, 

160  ;  coal  mines,  163 
Zones,  climatic,  106,  138,  139 
Zulia  River,  103,  117,  213,  214 


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